152 187% 2000 23. 7% 0. 9% 3. 6% the US Census Bureau 2000 2003 2007 1 1. 3 SAT II AP AP Critical Language 1994 SAT II SAT II 1994 National Council of

25 2011 4 * 1. 1 1. 2 1990 125 2000 202. 2003 219 2007 247 5. 75% 1990 53 2000 * 2011 University of Wisconsin-Madison 538

152 187% 2000 23. 7% 0. 9% 3. 6% the US Census Bureau 2000 2003 2007 1 1. 3 SAT II AP AP Critical Language 1994 SAT II SAT II 1994 National Council of Associations of Chinese Language Schools Chinese School Association in the United States 2003 The College Board AP AP AP 2006 AP 2007 5 AP 25% 2009 AP 2002 2006 Modern Language Association 1998 2002 20% 2002 2006 51% 2010 2006 National Security Language Initiative 1 http / / www. census. gov / prod /2001pubs / cenbr01-1. pdf http / / www. census. gov / prod /2004pubs / censr - 17. pdf http / / factfinder. census. gov / servlet / DTTable _bm = y& - geo_id = D& - ds_name = D& - _lang = en& - mt_name = ACS_2007_1YR_G2000_C16001 http / / factfinder. census. gov / servlet / DTTable _bm = y& - geo_id = D& - ds_name = D& - _lang = en& - mt_name = ACS_2003 _EST _G2000 _ P034 539

25 2011 4 5 2007 2011 STARTALK K-16 2011 50 Flagship Language Program K-16 2004 691 86 51 2011 2 1 2 3 4 2. 1 heritage students with a particular family relevance Fishman 2001 169 learners with a heritage motivation Van Deusen-Scholl 2003 317 118 37. 2% 58 18. 3% 141 44. 5% Kondo-Brown 2005 540

Gardner 1985 Wen 1997 Wen 2011a 317 6 2 1 2 3 4 5 6 1 1 1 Positive learning attitudes and experience 2 Instrumentality 3 Interest in current culture 4 Intended strategic efforts 5 Social milieu 6 Language requirement CBLs Chinese bilingual learners CHCLs Chinese heritage connected learners NCHLs Non-Chinese heritage learners Wen 2011a 1 2 3 4 5 2 Gardner Gardner 1985 2001 D rnyei D rnyei & Clément 2001 D rnyei & Csizér 2002 Csizér & D rnyei 2005 541

25 2011 4 2. 2 2009 3. 6% Furman Goldberg & Lusin 2010 26 60% Samimy & Tabuse 1992 4 3 Wen 2011a 1 1 1 Coefficients Beta t Beta t Beta t 1.. 13 1. 67 -. 03 -. 26. 28 2. 18 * 2.. 25 2. 69 **. 17 1. 56. 29 1. 94 3.. 27 3. 04 **. 42 3. 62 * * * -. 21-1. 49 4. -. 28-3. 07 ** -. 20-1. 73 -. 05 -. 33 5.. 06. 75. 02. 16. 05. 42 6.. 08. 92. 19 1. 70. 24 1. 59 R 2. 30. 27. 28 F 10. 50 *** 5. 08 * ** 4. 18 * * * * ** p. 001 * * p. 01 * p. 05 Clément 1980 Csizér & D rnyei 2005 Gardner 1985 Wen 3 542

Wen 2011a 1 Wen 2 2 2 Coefficients Beta t Beta t 1.. 26 4. 24 * * *. 14 2. 49 * * 2.. 02. 30. 23 3. 45 * * * 3.. 02. 33. 17 2. 59 * * 4.. 05. 65 -. 16-2. 10 * 5. -. 00 -. 02. 05. 92 6. -. 09-1. 14. 15 2. 37 * 7. -. 05 -. 64. 08 1. 13 R 2. 07. 24 F 3. 55 * ** 13. 50 * * * * ** p. 001 * * p. 01 * p. 05 2. 3 543

25 2011 4 Summer Institute STARTALK 2. 4 AP AP K-12 Flagship Language Program K-12 Immersion FLAP Programs AP AP 3. 1 Prabhu 1987 Piaget 1973 assimilation / accomodation Vygotsky 1978 Deci & Ryan 1985 SDT the self-determination theory 544

1 2 Nice try Pienemann 1987 2003 Ellis 2010 Pütz & Sicola 2010 Long Long 1981 1983a 1996 Pica & Doughty 1985 negotiation for meaning Long 1983b interactional modifications Na- tion 2001 negotiation for meaning Slavin 1996 Oakley et al. 2004 Felder & Brent 2009 Lee & VanPatten 2003 Spada 2007 545

25 2011 4 Gass & Serlinker 2008 comprehensible input noticing hypothesis pushed output constructivist theory of learning 3-5 1 2 3 4 5 1992 2000 3. 2 1999 ACTFL American Council on the Teaching of Foreign Languages 21 communication cultures communities comparisons connections form meaning and function Formfocused instruction Doughty & Williams 1998 Williams 2005 CLT Communicative Language Teaching Garrett 1991 Mapping 546

mapping rules - - 3 3 1 S. V. Obj. 2 S. + Time + PL. + V. + Obj. 3 Sentence 4 N. 1 S. PL adv. 1 2 Modifier N 3 S. N. 2 4 N / N. N 5 N. N 1 1 2 Subj. V. 2 3 S. V. Obj. V time duration / 3 4 Subj. V. time duration N. 5 / one form one meaning / function Andersen 1984 1994 2007 547

25 2011 4 Nattinger & DeCarrico 1992 1994 1 2 3 30 4 to leave to leave 3. 3 2010 548

D rnyei 1994 D rnyei & Ottó 1998 Mandell 2002 Wen 2011a D rnyei & Ottó 1998 Mandell 2002 2010 K-12 research-based instruction 1 2 3 4 549

25 2011 4 2009 AP 2000 2010 1 1992 2007 1994 2 Andersen R. W. 1984 The one to one principle of interlanguage construction. Language Learning 34 77-95. Clément R. 1980 Ethnicity contact and communicative competence in a second language. In H. M. Giles W. P. Robinson & P. M. Smith eds. Language Social psychological perspectives 147-154. Oxford UK Pergamon. Csizér K. & Z. D rnyei 2005 The internal structure of language learning motivation and its relationship with language choice and learning effort. The Modern Language Journal 89 19-36. Deci E. L. & R. M. Ryan 1985 Intrinsic Motivation and Self-determination in Human Behavior. New York Plenum Press. D rnyei Z. 1994 Motivation and motivating in the foreign language classroom. The Modern Language Journal 78. 3 273-284. D rnyei Z. & I. Ottó 1998 Motivation in action A process model of L2 motivation. Working Papers in Applied Linguistics 4 43-69. D rnyei Z. & K. Csizér 2002 Some dynamics of language attitudes and motivation Results of a longitudinal nationwide survey. Applied Linguistics 23. 4 421-462. D rnyei Z. & R. Clément 2001 Motivational characteristics of learning different target languages Results of a nationwide survey. In Z. D rnyei & R. Schmidt eds. Motivation and Second Language Acquisition Tech. Rep. No. 23 391-424. Honolulu HI Second Language Teaching and Curriculum Center The University of Hawaii. Doughty C. & J. Williams eds. 1998 Focus on Form in Classroom Second Language Acquisition. Cambridge Cambridge University Press. Ellis N. C. 2010 Construction learning as category learning. In M. Pütz and L. Sicola eds. Cognitive Processing and Second Language Acquisition Inside the Learner s Mind. Amsterdam John Benjamins. Felder R. M. & R. Brent 2009 Active learning An introduction. ASQ Higher Education Brief 2. 4. Fishman J. 2001 300-plus years of heritage language education in the United States. In J. K. Peyton D. A. Ranard & S. McGinnis eds. Heritage languages in America Preserving a national resource. McHenry IL CAL. Furman N. D. Goldberg & N. Lusin 2010 Enrollments in Languages other than English in United States Institutions of Higher Education Modern Language Association Downloaded from http / / www. mla. org / homepage. 550

Gardner R. C. 1985 Social Psychology and Second Language Learning. London Edward Arnold. Gardner R. C. 2001 Language learning motivation The student the teacher and the researcher. The keynote address to the Texas Foreign Language Education Conference University of Texas at Austin Austin Texas March 23. Web page http / / publish. uwo. ca / ~ gardner /. Garrett N. 1991 Theoretical and pedagogical problems of separating grammar from communication. In B. Freed ed. Foreign Language Acquisition Research and the Classroom. Lexington Mass D. Heath and Company. Gass S. & L. Serlinker 2008 Second Language Acquisition An Introductory Course. Mahuah NJ Lawrence Erlbaum Associates Publishers. Previous edition 2003. Kondo-Brown K. 2005 Differences in language skills Heritage language learner subgroups and foreign language learners. The Modern Language Journal 89 563-581. Lee J. & B. VanPatten 2003 Making Communicative Language Teaching Happen 2nd ed.. New York McGraw-Hill. Long M. 1981 Questions in foreigner talk discourse. Language Learning 31 135-157. Long M. 1983a Does second language instruction make a difference A review of the research. TESOL Quarterly 17 359-382. Long M. 1983b Native speaker / non-native speaker conversation and the negotiation of comprehensible input. Applied Linguistics 4 126-141. Long M. 1996 The role of the linguistic environment in second language acquisition. In Ritchie W. C. & T. K. Bahtia eds. Handbook of Second Language Acquisition 413-468. New York Academic Press. Mandell P. 2002 On the background and motivation of students in a beginning Spanish program. Foreign Language Annals 35. 5 530-542. Nation P. 2001 Learning Vocabulary in Another Language. Cambridge Cambridge University Press. Nattinger J. R. & J. S. DeCarrico 1992 Lexical Phrases and Language Teaching. Oxford Oxford University Press. Oakley B. R. Felder R. Brent & I. Elhajj 2004 Turning Student Groups into Effective Teams. Journal of Student-Centered Learning 2. 1 9-34. Piaget J. 1973 The Child and Reality. New York Penguin Books. Pica T. & C. Doughty 1985 Input and interaction in the communicative classroom A comparison of teacherfronted and group activities. In S. Gass and C. Madden eds. Input in second language acquisition 115-136. Rowley MA Newbury House. Pienemann M. 1987 Psychological constraints on the teachability of language. In C. W. Pfaff ed. First and Second Language Acquisition Processes. Rowley MA. Newbury House. Pienemann M. 2003 Language processing capacity. In C. Doughty and M. Long eds. The handbook of Second Language Acquisition 679-715. Oxford Blackwell Publishing. Prabhu N. 1987 Second Language Pedagogy. Oxford Oxford University Press. Pütz M. & L. Sicola 2010 Cognitive Processing and Second Language Acquisition Inside the Learner s Mind. Amsterdam John Benjamins. Samimy K. & M. Tabuse 1992 Affective Variables and a less commonly taught language study in beginning Japanese classes. Language Learning 42 377-399. Slavin R. 1996 Research on cooperative Learning and achievement What we know what we need to know. Contemporary Educational Psychology 21 43-69. 551

25 2011 4 Spada N. 2007 Communicative language teaching Current status and future prospects. In J. Cummins & C. Davison eds. International Handbook of English Language Teaching 261-288. New York Springer. Van Deusen-Scholl Nelleke 2003 Toward a definition of heritage language Sociopolitical and pedagogical considerations. Journal of Language Identity and Education 2. 2 11-30. Vygotsky L. S. 1978 Mind and society The Development of Higher Mental Processes. Cambridge MA Harvard University Press. Wen X. 1997 Motivation and language learning with students of Chinese. Foreign Language Annals 30. 2 235-251. Wen X. 2011a Chinese language learning motivation A comparative study of heritage and non-heritage learners. to appear in Heritage Language Journal. Wen X. 2011b Chinese Language Learning Motivation Studies of Ethnic Background and Proficiency Level. Manuscript. Williams J. 2005 Form-focused instruction. In E. Hinkel ed. Handbook of Research in Second Language Teaching and Learning 671-691. Mahwah NJ Lawrence Erlbaum. Challenges and Changes in Teaching Chinese as A Second Language in the USA Wen Xiaohong Abstract The present study analyzes the challenges confronting teachers in the field of teaching Chinese as a foreign language. They include 1 multiple backgrounds of learners in socio-ethnic cultural and motivational diversity 2 enrollment retention and sustainment of Chinese education development 3 teacher training and 4 K-16 articulation across different academic institutions. The study proposes changes and strategies to meet challenges and accommodate learners needs. Changes should not only be at the theoretical level but also at the level of classroom practice. Student-centered curriculum form-focused instruction and meaning-driven class activities help learners develop form-function-context mappings in an interactive classroom where language use cognitive and meta-cognitive skills are emphasized and practiced. Key words Chinese education in the USA challenge learning motivation language use language learning strategies University of Houston 30 Department of Modern & Classical Languages University of Houston Houston TX 77204-3006 552