補習_完稿_劉正_1012.doc

52 4 2006 12 TSSCI 181 04-2359-0121 ext 2987 04-2359-3780 E-mail: jliu@thu.edu.tw

1

The Transition, Effect, and Stratification of Cram Schooling in Taiwan Jeng Liu Associate Professor Department of Sociology, Tung-hai University ABSTRACT In this paper, I start by illustrating the development and transition of cram schools in Taiwan, and demonstrate the important changes on institutional factors, policies, and legitimacy of cram schools. Next, I use junior high school student samples collected by Taiwan Education Panel Survey in 2001 to investigate the net effect of cram schooling on student s analytical ability and mathematical performance and to test the hypotheses that the opportunity of cram school participation reflects the patterns of stratification by gender and family backgrounds. According to my empirical results, first of all, cram schooling does matter: attending cram schools has significantly positive effect on a student s academic performance, for both general analytical ability and mathematical comprehension. Secondly, cram school participation is so widespread in Taiwan and it does not reflect specific patterns of social stratification: the opportunity of going to cram school for a boy student is not significantly different from that of a girl; the effects of family backgrounds on students cram school participation are not as critical as they were before. Key Words: Cram Schooling, Cultural Capital, Educational Stratification, Taiwan Education Panel Survey 2

3 1 1968 1978 2003 1

1986 Katsillis & Rubinson, 1990; Teachman, 1987; Teachman & Paasch, 1998 DeGraaf, 1986; Ho & Willms, 1996; Kuo & Hauser, 1995; Pallas et al., 1996 2 TEPS 2 2003 4

5 1998 Tam & Hsu, 2002 0 1994 1996 1978 1987

2006 2003 1997 2006 6 43% 2006 3 Bourdieu Bourdieu, 1977; Bourdieu & Passeron, 1984 1993 3 1997 1,248 2006 7,319 6

1996114 Collins1979 culture currency Collins Bourdieu 1996 2001 2002 Aschaffenburg & Mass, 1997; Dumais, 2002; Isserles & Dalmage, 2000; Kalmijn & Kraaykamp, 1996 Teachman, 1987; Teachman & Paasch, 1998 1996 1998 7

2000 2000 2001 4 Pinguet, 1993 Passin, 1982 Kobayashi, 1976 Ishida et al., 1997; Sakamoto & Powers, 1995 Rosenbaum & Kariya, 1991 Passin, 1982; Miyahara, 1988 Iga, 1981 Schumer, 1999; Stevenson & Baker, 1992 4 2002 2000 2001 2002 2002 8

9 19901995 2000161 Liu Sakamoto 2002 2001 5 1998 5 Ishida et al., 1997 2001 6 1979 19901998 2000

10 1968 1976 1968 1976 1991 1990 1982 1996 1950 7 7 1954 1956

11 1944 1976 1968 1996 1981 19761978 1976 1978

12 1996 1997 1,248 2000 2,500 2006 7,000 2006 2001 2002 19701980 1990

13 1981 1996 1978 40~60 1990 2002

Taiwan Education Panel Survey TEPS 2001 9 1 2002 3 31 multistage stratified sampling TEPS TEPS dependent variable IRT 8 independent variable 1 8 Item Response Theory, IRT 2003 14

(1) IRT i K = α + β k= 1 k X ki + ε 1 IRT i (1) α intercept β k k X ki ε i 1 TEPS IRT 1 0 2 2~5 5~10 10~15 15~20 20 2 1 0 1 0 1 0 1 0 1 0 15

logistic regression (2) K P ln = α + β k X P ki (2) 1 k = 1 1 2 2 0.020 0.95 5.848 4.32 0.018 0.93 0.724 0.45 0.269 0.44 6.236 4.00 0.429 0.50 54.884 61.16 0.170 0.38 0.888 0.32 0.099 0.30 0.034 0.18 0.067 0.25 0.374 0.48 0.016 0.13 0.559 0.50 0.021 0.14 0.509 0.50 0.080 0.27 0.064 0.25 0.108 0.31 0.036 0.19 0.405 0.49 0.224 0.42 0.362 0.48 0.207 0.41 0.163 0.37 0.307 0.46 0.070 0.26 0.785 0.33 0.804 0.40 0.674 0.21 0.128 0.34 0.068 0.25 16

50.9 49.1 88.8 11.2 0.020 0.95 0.018 0.93 z 0 1 72.4 6.24 2 10.6 2~5 41.1 5~10 34.7 10~15 8.8 15 4.8 5.85 4.32 42.9 3.4 10.1 2.1+8.0 10.8 2 80.4 12.8 6.8 78.5 67.4 R-square 0.05 1 3 17

3 b beta b beta -0.804* -0.771* 0.067* 0.290 0.071* 0.319-0.004* -0.184-0.004* -0.197 2--- --- 2~5-0.075* -0.484-0.073* -0.492 5~10 0.022 0.140 0.019 0.129 10~15 0.058* 0.377 0.042 0.284 15~20 0.002 0.014 0.019 0.13 20-0.007-0.047-0.008-0.051 --- --- 0.220* 0.116 0.198* 0.109 0.502* 0.201 0.432* 0.181 0.723* 0.232 0.608* 0.204 0.846* 0.165 0.684* 0.139 --- --- 0.234* 0.036 0.234* 0.038 0.154* 0.044 0.135* 0.041 0.166* 0.055 0.162* 0.056 0.112 0.022 0.102 0.021 0.171* 0.076 0.169* 0.078 0.127* 0.055 0.139* 0.063 0.057 0.028 0.058 0.030 --- --- 0.201* 0.103 0.192* 0.104 0.313* 0.166 0.297* 0.164 --- --- -0.022-0.012 0.041* 0.023 --- --- -0.342* -0.110-0.293* -0.099-0.765* -0.175-0.662* -0.159 ---- ---- -0.033-0.008-0.055-0.014 ---- ---- -0.056* -0.029-0.04* -0.021-0.132* -0.052-0.112* -0.046-0.291* -0.077-0.212* -0.059 ---- ---- 0.077* 0.027 0.047* 0.017 ---- ---- 0.173* 0.077 0.136* 0.063 R-square 0.254 0.209 * p < 0.05 18

3 R-square 0.25 0.21 0.063 0.067-0.004 0.067 0.071-0.004-0.004 Sorensen, 1975 8.4 9 8.9 9 T (1) 2 IRT IRT i = α + β1 T + β 2T +... T β + T 0 T = 8.3750.067-2*0.004T = 0 1 2β 2 T 19

20 (2) 4 5 15 10 4 10

4 / -0.075-0.281-0.059 2 ---- ---- ---- 2~5-0.069-0.087-0.045 5~10 0.172* 0.164* 0.181* 10~15 0.233* 0.219* 0.256 15~20-0.117-0.103-0.127 20-0.218-0.190-0.266 ---- ---- ---- 0.217* 0.207* 0.226* 0.496* 0.468* 0.527* 0.476* 0.393* 0.576* 0.101 0.090 0.115 ---- ---- ---- 0.640* 0.782* 0.499 0.550* 0.666* 0.435 0.551* 0.700* 0.391 0.438* 0.522 0.363 0.657* 0.787* 0.525* 0.638* 0.753* 0.524* 0.559* 0.682* 0.433* ---- ---- ---- 0.159 0.156 0.168 0.264* 0.303* 0.224 ---- ---- ---- -0.168 ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- -0.444* -0.395* -0.509* -0.432* -0.459* -0.397* ---- ---- ---- 0.007-0.034 0.058 ---- ---- ---- -0.141* -0.193* -0.085-0.268* -0.278* -0.264* -0.297* -0.183-0.490* ---- ---- ---- 0.185* 0.141 0.233* ---- ---- ---- 0.205* 0.163* 0.265* -2 Loglikelihood 13349.44 7010.40 6326.17 * p < 0.05 21

22 4 1992 1996 2 5

5 2 2-5 5-10 10-15 15-20 20 2962.22 (1163.5) 2970.30 (1131.0) 2969.73 (1136.8) 2922.03 (1155.5) 3016.67 (1138.1) 3083.80 (1166.6) 2968.79 (1139.6) 2654.57 (1231.7) 2617.46 (1211.4) 2604.05 (1218.3) 2575.76 (1214.6) 2864.20 (1247.5) 2916.67 (1198.6) 2626.74 (1217.6) 1. 2. one way ANOVA F 0.681p 0.638 3. F 1.648p 0.144 5 t 11 12 3,000 11 Pearson Correlation Coefficent -0.014 0.092 12 23

24 72.4% 1993 1996

25 1998

26 2002 NSC92-2412-H-029-009

1 b beta b -0.253* -0.258* beta 0.116* 0.498 0.115* 0.505-0.006* -0.316-0.006* -0.313 R-square 0.046 0.050 * p < 0.05 2 2 2-5 5-10 10-15 15-20 20 10.6 41.1 34.7 8.8 2.7 2.1 100.0 9.9 42.2 34.3 9.2 2.6 1.7 100.0 10.3 41.4 34.9 8.9 2.6 1.9 100.0 Chi-square 27

28 1998 10119-164 2000 1993 4312-18 2002 1990 18(2)129-178 1995 3517-35 1990 32327-346 2002 1998 8163-167 1996 19 95-139 1976 1978 2002 2003 2006 1996 AB09

29 1981 11(10)8-24 2003 2006 6 30 http://www.pnews.com.tw/educhg01.htm 2002 1994 3265-292 2000 103416-434 2001 12115-144 1986 91-21 2003 TEPS 2001 2001 1982 1996 2001 291-129 2001 14313-337 2000 143-190 2002 2000 / 6103-140

2003 483-14 Aschaffenburg, K. & Maas, I. (1997). Cultural and educational careers: The dynamics of social reproduction. American Sociological Review, 62, 573-587. Bourdieu, P. & Passeron, J. C. (1977). Reproduction in education, society, and culture. London: Sage. Bourdieu, P. (1984). Distinction: A social critique of the judgment of taste. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. Collins, R. (1979). The credential society. New York: Academic Press. DeGraaf, P. M. (1986). The impact of financial and cultural resources on educational attainment in the Netherlands. Sociology of Education, 59, 237-246. Dumais, S. A. (2002). Cultural capital, gender, and school success: The role of habitus. Sociology of Education, 75, 44-68. Ho, S. E. & Willms, J. D. (1996). Effects of parental involvement on eighth-grade achievement. Sociology of Education, 69, 126-141. Iga, M. (1981). Suicide of Japanese youth. Suicide and Life Threatening Behavior, 11, 17-30. Ishida, H., Spilerman, S. & Su, K. (1997). Educational credentials and promotion chances in Japanese and American organizations. American Sociological Review, 62, 866-882. Isserles, R. & Dalmage, H. (2000). Cultural capital as rules and resistance: Bringing it home in the introductory classroom. Teaching Sociology, 28, 160-165. Kalmijn, M. & Kraaykamp, G. (1996). Race, cultural capital, and schooling: An analysis of trends in the United States. Sociology of Education, 69, 22-34. Katsillis, J. & Rubinson, R. (1990). Cultural capital, student achievement, and educational reproduction: The case of Greece. American Sociological Review, 55, 270-279. Kobayashi, T. (1976). Society, schools, and progress in Japan. New York: Pergamon Press Inc. Kuo, H. D. & Hauser, R. M. (1995). Trends in family effects on the education of black and white brothers. Sociology of Education, 68, 136-160. 30

Liu, J. & Sakamoto, A. (2002). The role of schooling in Taiwan s labor market: Human capital, screening, or credentialism? Taiwanese Journal of Sociology, 29, 1-56. Miyahara, K. (1988). Inter-college stratification: The case of male college graduates in Japan. Sociological Forum, 3, 25-43. Pallas, A. M., Entwisle, D. R., Alexander, K. L. & Cadigan, D. (1987). Children who do exceptionally well in first grade. Sociology of Education, 60, 257-271. Passin, H. (1982). Society and education in Japan. Kodansha International. Pinguet, M. (1993). Voluntary death in Japan. Cambridge: Polity Press. Rosenbaum, J. E. & Kariya, K. (1991). Do school achievements affect the early jobs of high school graduates in the United States and Japan? Sociology of Education, 64, 78-95. Sakamoto, A. & Powers, D. A. (1995). Education and the dual labor market for Japanese men. American Sociological Review, 60, 222-246. Schumer, G. (1999). Mathematics education in Japan. Journal of Curriculum Studies, 31, 399-427. Sorensen, A. B. (1975). Growth in occupational achievement: Social mobility or investment in human capital. In K. C. Land & S. Spilerman (Eds), Social indicator models (pp.335-60). New York: Russell Sage Foundation. Stevenson, D. L. & Baker, D. P. (1992). Shadow education and allocation in formal schooling: Transition to university in Japan. American Journal of Sociology, 97, 1639-1657. Tam, H. & Hsu, H. (2002). The effect of cram schools in the eyes of junior high students in Taiwan. Paper presented at the Conference on Social Structure and Social Changes. December 19, Taipei: Institute of European and American Studies, Academia Sinica. Teachman, J. D. (1987). Family background, educational resources, and educational attainment. American Sociological Review, 52, 548-557. Teachman, J. D. & Paasch, K. (1998). The family and educational aspirations. Journal of Marriage and the Family, 60, 704-714. 31