The Research on Spatial Construction of Meinung Tobacco Buildings
421 402 991
ABSTRACT The research is based on the architectural space of Meinung tobacco buildings, particularly on how the Meinung residents utilized spaces for the social praxis in the post-tobacco industry after the wane of the tobacco industry and the change of life style. From the examples that tobacco farmers constructed spaces from their own tobacco buildings and local intelligentsias promoted the movement to preserve the tobacco buildings, it is to study the recycling motion, starting point, faced problems and procedures between both. From the fieldwork, three main findings of the study were as follows: First of all, the fieldwork indicates that there are four hundred and twenty-one tobacco buildings that are well preserved while there are four hundred and two damaged and nine hundred and ninety-one demolished completely or reconstructed for other usage. Regarding the conception of the spatial space of the tobacco buildings, tobacco farmers apply to extend the usage of the local language via the architectural form, the changes in materials and the division of tobacco labor. This conception comes from the social vicissitudes in Meinung tobacco production that turned into the extension for spatial function and formed the variety of spoken culture in Meinung area. After the spatial function of the tobacco building was waned, the image of the tobacco barns became the spatial symbol. The symbolization was formed mainly from the working experience that the tobacco farmers made inside the tobacco buildings. Secondly, in the conception of the spatial construction, tobacco farmers were prone to re-develop the tobacco buildings. They had accumulated their own labor experience from tobacco production and applied it to reconstruct spaces. However, they were afraid of tobacco production and desired to release it from the operation. Their emotional dematerialization in tobacco production turned into the working behavioral vocabularies that were stated for human. They appease their inside motion via forming this kind of abstract elements. When the tobacco buildings were affected by the colonial rules, it caused the limitation in space. In the reconstruction of tobacco buildings, the tobacco farmers set it approach to their own usage which had debilitated the motivation that the craftsmen improved their skills. The spatial construction must be based on farmer s behavior to achieve the target of generating the economic effect.
Thirdly, tobacco farmers were forced to change their existing traditional spatial system by colonized tobacco industry from the social praxis. Spatial forms were changed by labor demand, but tobacco farmers respected their own traditional spatial system through imitating method. The wane of tobacco industry was an indirect cause of the replacement of spatial function of tobacco buildings. Regarding the preservation in tobacco buildings and the transition of farmers in life style, both had caused the different attitude in spatial preservation. When tobacco farmers acted inside the tobacco buildings, they followed the preserving style which was the closest approach to use space. The intelligentsias recovered their regretful feeling that could not participate in the labor procedure by their emotional memory and homesickness. They wished to prolong the culture of the tobacco production by its cooperation and mutuality. However, the transition in tobacco industry which the intelligentsias ignored had caused the changes in life style of the tobacco farmers. It had resulted in the starting point to extend tobacco culture by preserving complete spatial system but did not consider the functionalism. The researcher considers that it is a reasonable proceeding form that the intelligentsias update their main ideas in the image of the tobacco barns and replace to the respect of the tobacco farmers in life style. Key word: Meinung, tobacco building, spatial construction, social praxis, preservation
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5.41...149 5.42...150 5.43...153 5.44...156 5.45...156 5.46...157 5.47...157 5.48...158 5.49...160 5.50...162 5.51...163 VIII
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2 Cohen, Myron L(1976)House United, House Divided. The Chinese Family in Taiwan. Columbia University Press O Cohen, Myron L 1977 66-67 7
8 1993 Cohen, Myron L 1997 1998 ( ) 2002 OO
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3.3 3.3 36 21 1949 3.4 3.4 13 1975 16
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59 59 1995 pp.44-49 139
(5.36) 5.36 1994 pp.18 140
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144 65 O O 66 65 1994 pp.77-83 66 1997 pp.61-72
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69 5.37 5.37 70 5.38 69 1999 pp.79-80 70 1999 pp.81 146
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71 5.40 5.40 14 1955 OO 71 1999 pp.84 148
5.41 5.41 1 297 19561957 149
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1.1 1 1 106 3 1950-10 2 1 116 1937-10 3 37 3 1950-10 4 37 6 1950-10 5 380 77 1948-10 6 275 3 1949-10 7 135 5 1968-12 8 379 18 1954-10 9 379 20 1954-10 10 379 20 1962-12 11 380 29 1967-12 12 380 80 1955-10 13 380 80 1968-12 14 380 68 1968-12 15 380 77 1955-10 16 380 77 1962-12 17 380 78 1956-09 18 380 86 1950-12 19 1 106 10 1955-10 1.2 1 362 1954-10 2 369 5 1948-10 3 369 6 1955-10 4 1 1956-09 5 369 8 1957-11 6 5 1955-10 7 23 1949-10 8 45 1956-09 ( ) 169
1.3 1 1 198 1968-12 2 1 277 1950-11 3 1 277 1957-11 4 1 297 1956-09 5 1 297 1967-12 6 290 1957-11 7 373 1962-12 8 29 1949-10 9 282 1955-10 10 318 1962-12 11 298-2 1939-10 12 302 1938-11 13 278 1962-12 14 254 1956-09 15 250 1975-11 16 218 1951-11 17 214 1974-11 18 206 1954-10 1.4 1 66 1955-10 2 66 1955-10 3 66 1957-11 4 66 1957-11 5 81 1955-10 6 81 1957-11 7 98 1957-11 8 106 1965-11 9 146 1950-10 10 188 12 1950-11 11 129 7 1957-11 12 129 8 1957-11 13 129 13 1957-11 14 129 7 1962-12 15 101 1946-10 170
171 1.5 1 55 1957-11 2 57 1955-10 3 19 17 1955-10 4 19 18 1948-10 5 19 18 1962-12 6 2 295 1955-10 7 2 319 1956-09 8 77 1957-11 9 82 1950-11 10 106 1950-10 11 112 ( ) 1.6 1 29 2 9 13 1968-12 3 9 5 1950-10 4 9 5 5 9 5 6 9 5 1954-10 7 9 5 8 9 5 9 9 5 1955-10 10 9 5 1956-09 11 9 5 1956-09 12 36 3 13 2 1955-10 14 8 1968-12 15 8 1968-12 16 10 1949-11 17 10 1949-11 18 10 1950-11 19 10 1950-11 20 19 4 1951-11 1.7 1 1 60 1968-12 2 1 120 1950-10 3 1 120 1962-12 4 1 120 1974-12
1.8 1 46 1950-11 2 46 1962-11 3 37 1950-11 4 28 1951-09 5 51 1955-10 6 51 1956-09 7 81 1975-11 8 57 1962-11 9 57 1948-11 10 57 1955-10 11 57 1962-11 12 13 59 1956-09 59 1950-10 14 63 1956-09 15 179 1 1956-09 16 7 1975-11 17 18 1956-09 18 24 1955-10 19 29 1937-10 20 94 1962-11 21 103 1955-10 22 37 3 1948-10 23 61 1951-01 24 61 1969-12 25 66 1954-10 26 42 1962-11 27 34 1950-10 28 34 1956-09 29 32 1962-11 30 11 1940-11 31 11 1955-10 32 11 1969-12 33 11 1940-11 34 11 1955-10 35 2 2 1962-11 36 233 1956-09 37 9 4 172
1.1 (1994) 173
2.1 1 3 1956-11 2 4 1975-12 3 9 1954-10 4 9 5 9 1954-10 6 12 1956-11 7 13 1957-11 8 13 1975-12 9 24 1969-12 10 30 1963-01 11 31 1975-11 12 35 1955-11 13 35 1956-11 14 43 1954-10 15 39 1963-01 16 40 1956-11 17 40 1957-11 18 42 1975-12 19 20 1963-01 20 21 1966-01 21 21 1956-11 22 23 1956-11 23 23 1956-11 24 30 1950-11 25 38 1956-11 26 39 1975-12 27 39 1956-11 28 40 1969-12 29 41 1976-12 30 43 1956-11 31 43 1956-11 32 43-6 1968-12 33 45 1951-10 34 1976-12 35 54 1945-11 36 54 1963-01 174
37 55 1950-1 38 56 1956-11 39 72 1975-12 40 73 1956-11 41 74 1956-11 42 75 43 83 1945-10 44 1 1963-01 45 3 1975-12 46 22 1963-01 81018 175 2.2 1 1 1938-09 2 7 1956-11 3 18 1969-12 4 21 1963-01 5 25 1963-01 6 23 1957-11 7 27 1975-12 8 5 1963-01 9 14 1963-01 10 13 1970-12 11 17 1969-12 12 18 1950-09 13 18 1963-01 14 1 195 1948-11 15 1 201 1955-11 16 1 201 1955-11 17 1 405 1946-09 18 1 798 1950-09 19 1 840 1938-07 20 4 1949-09 21 5 1954-10 22 17 1956-11 23 28 1970-12 24 11 1949-09 25 14 1949-09 26 14 1963-01 27 1 28 5 1949-09
2.3 1 2 1969-12 2 4-1 1975-12 3 23-1 4 28 1950-11 5 28 1968-12 6 15 1954-10 7 15 1963-01 8 15 1975-12 9 17 1967-12 10 20 1954-10 11 20 1963-01 12 21 1955-11 13 1 1968-12 14 1 1956-11 15 2 1950-10 16 2 1967-12 17 3 18 5 1956-11 19 9 1950-11 20 10 1968-12 21 13 1975-12 22 16 1950-10 23 26 1956-11 24 30-1 1056-11 25 31 1954-10 26 34 1967-12 27 38 1975-12 28 39 1968-12 29 43 1075-12 30 47 1067-12 31 62 1975-12 32 66 1956-11 33 3 34 3 1976-12 35 7 1975-12 36 12 1975-12 37 21 1950-10 38 21 1967-12 39 24 1975-12 40 13 1966-11 41 13 1974-12 42 14 1956-11 176
177 2.4 1 1 615 1968-12 2 1 1975-12 3 2 1966-02 4 2 1975-12 5 11 1966-12 6 11 1975-12 7 27 1966-01 8 27 1975-12 9 30 1956-11 10 35 1966-12 11 41 1950-10 12 41 1963-01 13 44 1953-12 14 12 1950-10 15 7 1963-01 16 12 1966-02 17 16 1954-10 18 16 1955-10 19 16 1963-01 20 19 1956-11 21 19 1968-12 22 21 1968-12 23 48 1956-11 24 48 1974-12 25 48 1975-12 26 7 1966-02 27 1 334 1956-11 28 1 334 1968-12 29 1 411 23 1950-09 30 1 411 25 1963-01 31 1 411 21 1956-11 32 1 411 21 1966-12 33 1 397 1967-12 34 1 411 27 1956-10 35 1 411 27 1963-01 36 1 411 31 1950-09 37 1 411 31 1963-01 2.5 1 3 1957-10
2.6 1 5 1956-11 2 3 530 1957-11 3 12 1975-12 4 13 1956-11 5 19 1975-12 6 21 1945-11 7 2 1950-10 8 3 1950-10 9 4 1950-12 10 4 1963-01 11 5 1963-01 12 10-1 13 16-2 1975-12 14 81 1975-12 15 2 97 12 1963-12 16 2 97 12 1975-12 17 2 97 29 1950-12 18 22 1963-01 15 2.7 1 2 652 16 1963-01 2 34 18 1950-09 3 16 1954-10 4 16 1963-01 5 91 1968-12 6 1 103 1955-11 7 2 100 1975-12 5 2.8 1 81 1946-12 2 81 1955-11 178
179 2.9 1 28 2 28 1954-09 3 29 1963-01 4 32 1967-12 5 18 1955-11 6 38 1956-11 7 46 1968-12 8 70 1967-12 9 70 1968-12 10 3 6 28 1956-11 11 3 6 28 1967-12 12 2 868 1 1975-12 13 3 6 56 1975-12 14 3 6 62 1975-12 15 3 6 97 1955-11 16 2 20 4 17 2 22 2 1950-10 18 2 38 12 1951-01 19 2 40 1975-12 20 2 60 1954-10 21 2 60 1963-01 22 2 1955-11 23 5 1954-10 24 5 1955-11 25 5 1967-12 26 7 1950-10 27 7 1963-01 28 8 1969-12 29 10 1955-11 30 11 1975-12 31 13 1963-01 32 15 1975-12 33 15-1 1975-12 34 10 1950-10 35 10 1975-12 3 5 517 2.10 1 2 85 1963-01
2.1 (1994) 180
181
3.1 1 11 1950-11 2 11 1962-12 3 11 1940-11 4 47 1953-01 5 47 1954-11 6 47 1962-12 7 47 1956-09 8 47 1953-01 9 96 1954-10 10 108 1949-12 11 1 1962-10 12 27 1956-12 13 14 1949-11 14 14 1956-11 15 14 1955-11 16 17 1955-11 17 17 1955-11 18 18 1955-11 19 18 1940-10 20 18 1947-11 21 21 1962-12 22 21 1968-12 23 21 1956-11 24 21 1968-12 25 23 1956-11 26 23 1995-11 27 23 1865-12 28 31 1962-12 29 31 1948-11 30 33 1940-10 31 33 1950-11 32 34 1962-12 33 34 1968-12 182
34 34 1973-12 35 35 1962-12 36 36 37 37 1949-11 38 37 1962-12 39 37 1955-11 40 44 1962-11 41 46 1962-11 42 51 1949-12 43 51 1962-12 44 51 1950-11 45 51 1962-10 46 53 1954-10 47 53 1963-11 48 56 1955-11 49 58 1956-12 50 58 51 58 1975-11 52 58 1954-10 53 58 1959-11 54 58 1947-11 55 58 1968-12 56 60 1966-11 57 61 1950-11 58 61 1956-11 59 61 1973-11 60 61 1955-11 61 61 1966-11 62 69 1950-11 63 1 1950-10 64 3 1955-11 65 3 1955-11 66 4 1940-10 67 5 1956-11 68 7 1957-11 69 7 1957-11 70 16 1950-10 71 20 1950-10 183
72 22 1965-12 73 26 1954-10 74 26 1962-12 75 39 1955-11 76 45 1951-10 77 45 1966-11 78 49 1962-12 79 52 1968-12 80 52 1962-12 81 52 1963-11 82 52 1963-11 83 55 1950-12 84 55 1962-12 85 57 1939-10 86 57 1962-12 3.2 1 20 1962-12 2 15 1951-10 3 19 1949-10 4 33 1956-11 5 48 1956-11 6 73 1962-12 3.3 1 3 1956-10 2 8 1962-12 3 8 1950-09 4 18 1972-12 5 21 1950-10 6 21 1962-12 7 23 1973-11 8 24 1955-11 184
3.4 1 6 1962-12 2 6 1968-11 3 28 1965-12 4 1 1956-11 5 5 1955-11 6 20 1954-10 7 21 1956-09 8 22 1966-11 9 29 1956-11 10 29 1969-12 11 11 1954-11 12 13 1962-12 13 13 1955-10 14 17 1956-11 15 35 1956-11 16 19 1947-11 17 27 1950-10 18 31 1966-12 19 31 1966-12 20 64 1962-12 21 69 1962-12 22 89 1956-11 23 99 1966-12 24 103 1969-12 25 103 1950-11 26 105 1951-09 27 109 1969-12 28 112 1954-11 29 117 1973-12 30 117 1979-12 31 119 1967-12 32 5 1951-02 33 5 1965-12 34 10 1967-12 35 10 1950-09 34 185
3.1 (1994) 186
4.1 1 139 13 1967-12 2 81 1950-11 3 74 3 1955-10 4 94 3 1962-12 5 95 1956-11 6 109 3 1962-12 7 109 7 1962-11 8 131 3 1956-11 9 139 10 1956-11 10 139 10 1956-12 11 134 1956-11 12 134 1962-11 13 109 3 1951-07 14 139 6 1951-10 15 139 6 1962-12 16 139 25-6 1962-11 17 139 25-6 1962-11 18 139 25-1 1955-10 19 1 1950-11 20 1 1955-10 21 4 1946-11 22 4 1954-10 23 4 1966-12 24 4 1967-12 25 4 1968-12 26 4 1968-12 27 4 1969-12 28 4 1969-12 29 5 1939-11 30 5 1967-12 31 3 1955-10 32 3 1962-12 33 5 1956-11 34 3 1956-11 35 3 1974-12 36 3-1 1975-12 37 6 1946-11 38 6 1956-11 39 7 1949-11 187
40 7 1950-11 41 1 1955-10 42 3 1956-11 43 5 1975-12 44 19 1950-11 45 75 1951-08 46 75 1962-12 47 113 1 1950-11 48 131 3 1962-12 49 113 1 1956-11 50 125 1962-12 51 125 1956-11 52 131 1 1955-10 4.2 1 106 18 1966-12 2 106 32-2 1950-11 3 39 30 1949-11 4 560 15 1946-11 5 560 15 1955-10 6 47 1946-11 7 30 1950-11 8 106 29 1951-09 9 22 1950-11 10 95 1950-11 11 95 1955-10 12 39 2 1949-10 13 39 2 1955-10 14 480 11 1956-11 15 488 5 1950-11 16 495 12 1951-09 17 495 12 1962-12 18 535 1956-11 19 461 40 1956-11 20 575 201 1962-12 21 575 203 1975-12 22 575 181 1950-10 23 575 181 1962-12 24 601 5 1949-11 25 36-7 1947-07 26 36-7 1975-12 27 16 1955-10 188
28 80-2 1956-11 29 28 1956-12 30 30 1962-12 31 80-1 1975-12 32 138 1970-12 33 130-6 1949-11 34 130-6 1955-10 35 106 32-2 1955-10 36 106 32-2 1962-12 37 96 10 1944-11 38 96 20 1950-11 39 66 47 1956-11 40 150 38 1956-12 41 560 10 1955-10 42 70 51 1956-11 43 560 10 1975-12 44 70 71 1955-10 45 70 71 1962-12 46 48 5 1956-11 47 39 1951-07 48 39 1962-12 4.3 1 86 1956-11 2 86 1956-11 3 52 56 1956-11 4 412 1955-10 5 392 1955-10 6 180 1968-12 7 331 1954-10 8 331 1956-11 9 36 3 1950-11 10 36 3 1970-12 11 316 1950-11 12 316 1956-11 13 152 60 1956-11 14 152 25 1947-11 15 152 25 1966-12 16 152 63 1954-10 17 152 55 1950-11 18 183 1970-12 19 136 1975-12 189
20 152 26 1956-11 21 152 12 1974-12 22 152 30 1975-12 23 152 16 1956-11 24 60 1975-12 25 60 1975-12 26 116 1947-10 27 112 1955-10 28 116 35 1950-11 29 36 21 1949-11 30 60 1956-11 31 36 28 1969-08 32 36 5 1955-10 33 8 1950-11 34 10 1950-11 35 8 1951-08 190 36 16 1955-10 37 81 51 1948-11 38 81 51 1955-10 39 238 1951-08 40 217 1938-11 41 219 1949-11 42 215 1955-10 43 215 1955-10 44 102 1956-11 45 218 1956-12 46 218 1975-12 47 203 1950-10 48 245 1956-11 49 204 1950-10 50 200 1950-11 51 204 1950-11 52 182 1955-10 53 184 1975-12 54 179 1975-12 55 130 1954-10 56 110 1977-12 57 96 1950-11 58 96 1950-11 59 96 1975-12 60 96 1956-11 61 96 1956-11 62 96 1956-11 63 87 1975-12
4.1 (1994) 191
5.1 1 2 3 1947-10 2 2 3 1954-10 3 002 223 1963-10 4 2 426 72 1955-10 5 2 1947-09 6 2 1955-10 7 25 3 1976-01 8 3 1946-09 9 6 1950-09 10 6 1957-11 11 8 1955-10 12 8 1957-11 13 15 10 1948-09 14 15 10 1968-12 15 14 1938-06 16 14 1948-09 17 14 1955-10 18 14 1946-09 19 15 2 1976-01 20 15 8 1941-09 21 15 22 1950-10 22 15 28 1955-10 23 24 1938-06 24 24 1962-11 25 25 2 1950-10 26 25 3 1955-10 27 25 3 1962-11 28 25 3 1969-12 29 29 1962-11 30 35 2 1955-10 31 35 3 1947-09 32 35 6 1955-10 33 36 1969-12 34 46 1949-08 35 48 1956-10 36 52 1947-09 37 52 1947-10 38 50 1948-11 39 54 1976-01 40 58 1956-10 41 636 1970-12 192
42 622 1962-11 43 622 1969-12 44 587 1941-10 45 587 1955-10 46 583-1 1969-12 47 582 9 1962-11 48 576 49 548 1969-12 50 537-5 1948-10 51 537-5 1976-01 52 545 1962-11 53 545 1968-12 54 545 1976-01 55 507 1955-10 56 507 1959-11 57 516 1949-10 58 516 1976-01 59 510 1955-10 60 498 1957-11 61 486 1947-09 62 486 1968-12 63 478 1950-10 64 478 1962-11 65 456 1955-10 66 456 1962-11 67 334 26 1951-09 68 332 6 1948-11 69 5 1963-01 70 6 1954-10 71 14 1955-10 72 17 1941-09 73 17 1954-10 74 17 1955-10 75 17 1963-01 76 18 1951-07 77 18 1962-11 78 19 1954-10 79 19 1962-11 80 23 1940-08 81 23 1955-10 82 24 1948-10 83 24 1955-10 84 2 829 6 85 2 829 10 1957-11 86 2 870 10 1976-01 87 2 855 20 1950-10 88 2 855 20 1962-11 193
5.1 (1994) 194
195 6.1 1 5 1956-11 2 7-71 1966-12 3 6 1956-11 4 8 1956-11 5 9 1971-08 6 12 1948-09 7 12 1966-12 8 14 1956-11 9 15 1956-11 10 15 1965-12 11 18 1955-11 12 23 1953-10 13 25 1956-11 14 25 1962-12 15 26 1966-12 16 30 1955-10 17 31 1967-12 18 31 1968-12 19 35 1968-12 20 35 1970-12 21 36 1956-11 22 49 1956-11 23 50 1955-11 24 52 1950-10 25 53 1941-11 26 54 1939-12 27 54 1956-11 28 54 1963-01 29 55 1975-12 30 56 1956-11 31 57 1950-10 32 57 1975-12 33 59 1947-11 34 59 1962-12 35 61 1968-12 36 63 1962-12 37 83 1956-11 38 83 1975-12 39 87 1955-11 40 89 1956-11 41 89 1956-11 42 90 1969-12 43 91 1956-11 44 91 1975-12 45 92 1975-12
46 93 1956-11 47 94 1956-11 48 96 1956-11 49 96 1967-12 50 97 1956-11 51 101 1965-12 52 103 1950-10 53 103 1956-11 54 103 1962-12 55 109 1940-11 56 111 1940-10 57 111 1956-11 58 113 1970-12 59 115 1975-12 60 116 1966-12 61 2 154 62 8 1975-12 3444 6.2 1 21 1941-10 2 21 1962-12 3 21 1967-12 4 21 1951-03 5 21 1966-10 6 21 1956-11 7 23 1950-12 8 24 1951-10 9 26 1950-10 10 26 1956-11 11 26 1950-11 12 26 1956-11 13 26 1962-12 14 26 1968-12 15 27 1950-10 16 27 1962-12 17 28 1966-12 18 33 1956-11 19 36 1956-11 20 37 1956-11 21 38 1956-11 22 44 1951-10 23 44 1956-11 24 44 1962-12 25 52 1955-11 26 52 1956-11 27 53 1966-12 196
6.1 (1994) 197
7.1 2003/05/02 2003/10/04 2004/04/12 2004/04/12 2004/04/19 2004/05/19 2004/05/24 2004/06/15 2004/06/18 2004/06/19 2004/06/25 2004/06/26 2004/06/29 2004/08/02 2004/08/03 2004/08/04 2004/08/05 2004/08/06 2004/08/06 2004/08/10 2004/08/10 2004/08/10 2004/08/11 2004/08/11 2004/09/06 2004/09/07 2004/09/07 2004/09/07 2004/09/10 2004/09/11 2004/09/12 2004/09/13 198
2001 2000 1977 15 2 (p.4) 1977 15 3 (p.4) 1977 15 5 (p.5) 1978 16 5 (p.15) 1983 20 9 (p.6) 1965 3 1 (pp.13-16) 1967 5 10 (pp.36-37) 2003 1995 (pp.44-49) 1997 199
1994 (pp.77-83) 1976 13 8 (p.9-31) 2002 749 1998 2002 1994 1997 ( )(pp.1180) 1977 66-67 1998 1980 17 10 (p.10) 2001 2004 1919-2004 2003 750 1971 8 7 (pp.10) 1991 (pp.201) 1997 (pp.248) 2000 2001 200
1994 (pp.18) 1987 1967 (pp.20) 2002 1994 (pp.90-92) 1994 (pp.84-89) 1997 ( )(pp.61-72) 1993 (pp.23-57) 1999 (pp.79-84) 1993 1976 14 11 (pp.12-14) Cohen, Myron L 1976 House United, House Divided. The Chinese Family in Taiwan.Columbia University Press 201
202