20 1 : 2 100836 (010)6803 4303 Email shili@econ.hit-u.ac.jp 2002 7 1 1
( ) 1938 (Simons 1938) : GDP ( ) (Khan et al. 1992 The World Bank 1997 Bramall 2
2001) ( 1994) (imputed rent) 10% ( 1993 89 ) 1993 30% ( 1993 95 ) 3
( ) : ( 1999) ( ) 2 Gibson Huang Rozelle(2001) 23% 2 Hussain Lanjouw Stern (1994) 4
3 4 ( ) 1978 0.21 0.22 ( 1987 5 2001 29 1994) 5 3 4 88% 24% 5 1978 60 70 1954 1 2 ( 1997 62 ) Mark selden(1985) 1978 8 ( ) 0.16 0.31 70 0.16 0.17 Putterman(1993) 1979 5
Adelman Sunding(1987) 1978 0.22 6 ( 1999) 80 1978 0.21 1981 0.24 1984 0.26( 2001) 1978 1982 0.32 0.22(Ahmad and Wang 1991: Table A1) 80 1985 0.23 1990 0.31 7 1995 0.34 2000 0.35( 2001 29 ) 15 50% 1988 1995 0.34 0.42( 1999) 5 0.14 0.19 5 0.21 Zhu (1991) 6 1978 0.246 1957 0.15 60 0.10 70 0.15 ( 1997 65 ) Griffin Saith (1982) 6 Mark selden (1985) 1978 0.28 1978 0.32( Ahmad and Wang 1991 ) 7 (World Bank 1997) 6
1988 13 1995 14.7 ( 1999 ) 1988 15.7 1995 18.1 ( 1999) Ravallion Chen (1999) 4 1990 1985 6 16% ( GDP ) 8 9 1988 1995 1988 0.19 1995 0.23 21%( 1999) (Theil index) 1988 22% 1995 31% 106%( 1999) Gustafsson Li (2001) 1988 1995 1988 43% 57%1995 47% 106% Zhu(1991) 3 6 1978 1985 4 Putterman (1993) 5 1979 1985 10 8 Gustafsson Li (2001) 9 90 7
5 1 Ho(1994) 1987 6 0.16 0.37 Hare(1992) 80 249 0.31 Cook(1996) 90 0.3 Sato(2001) 5 90 0.16 0.43 ( ) 10 80 1978 1984 0.16 0.15(. 1996) 20 80 Ahmad Wang (1991) 10 1987 0.26 1981 80 50%(. 1996) 1988 0.23; ( ) 0.23( 1994) 80 10 1978 0.16 Adelman Sunding (1987) 1978 0.165 1952 ( 1999) 80% ( ) ( 1985) 8
90 1992 80 90 1995 0.33 1988 10 1994 0.30 90 1995 3.78 2000 5.00 1999 1995 1999 10 15% (Li 2000 Meng 2001) 1988 1995 81.9% 78.9% 64.7% 10.6% 84.1% 79.1% 55.7% 3.9% 1988 10% 1988 1995 5 ( ) (Knight and Song 1999: p.338) 11 12 11 1990 3.57 2000 2.79 30% 2000 3.62 12 1957 1965 3.22 2.12 ( (1949 1989) 35 ) 9
1978 2.56 80 1984 1.84 13 1 1. 1985 2000 80 1 1 10 1994 2.6 1995 1994 1995 40% 20% 47% 29%( 2001 294 ) 1997 2.21 1994 38 1997 13 1978 1985 44%( (1949 1989) 35 ) 6.2 ( (1949 1989) 371 ) 10
14 2000 1997 25 ( 1) 1. 1985 2000 1985 398 739 1 1.00 398 739 1.86 1986 424 900 1.06 1.07 400 838 2.09 1987 463 1002 1.13 1.16 410 861 2.10 1988 545 1181 1.32 1.41 413 837 2.03 1989 602 1376 1.58 1.63 381 842 2.21 1990 686 1510 1.65 1.66 416 911 2.19 1991 709 1701 1.69 1.74 420 978 2.33 1992 784 2027 1.77 1.89 443 1074 2.42 1993 922 2577 2.01 2.19 459 1175 2.56 1994 1221 3496 2.48 2.75 492 1273 2.59 1995 1578 4283 2.91 3.21 542 1335 2.46 1996 1926 4839 3.14 3.49 613 1388 2.26 1997 2090 5160 3.22 3.60 649 1435 2.21 1998 2162 5425 3.19 3.57 678 1518 2.24 1999 2210 5854 3.14 3.53 704 1658 2.36 2000 2253 6280 3.14 3.56 718 1764 2.46 2000 304 2000 282 1988 57.1% 1995 49.1%( 1999) 3.2 1988 1995 ( 1999) 14 1997 1997 4.5% 1998 8% 1999 12.2% 2000 3.6%( 2001 294 ) 11
1988 2.42 2.17 25 15 ( ) Adelman Sunding (1987) 1978 : 0.317; 0.438 82% 16 Adelman Sunding (1987) 1983 0.284 0.412 80 1981 0.29 1995 0.39 (World Bank 1997) 80 0.382 ( 15 1995 72%( World Bank 1997) 16 Adelman Sunding (1987) Ma Hong New Strategy for China s Economy. Beijing: New World Press 1983 12
1993) 1995 1995 0.452( 1999 100 ) 1988 1995 7 1 10 1988 7.3 (Khan et al. 1992) 1995 17.3 (Khan et al 1998) 90 2000 1995 2000 ( ) 1995 ( 1) 90 ( 2) 2 1995 (Khan and Riskin 1998) (World Bank 1997) 1988 40% (Gustafsson and Li 1998) 17 40% 1995 6 7 24% ( 1999) 1988 1995 16.5%( 1999) 18 17 18 1984 1995 60% 74% (World Bank 1997) 13
( 1999) ( ) (Zhu 1991 1994 1994 Hare 1994 Cook 1996 ) 19 1988 10.7% 1995 14.4% ( 1999) 0.4% 64.6% 0.8% 37.6% ( 1999) 1988 1995 ( ) 1988 (concentration ratio) 0.71 1995 0.74 0.28 ( 1999) 1995 1988 1995 1988 10.7% 1995 1988 1995 1988 19.8%( 1999) 19 90 2.6 50% ( 1997: 52 53 ) 14
1988 1995 1988 34% 1995 55%( 1999) ( 1999) 1988 10 1995 20 1988 8 1995 10 1988 ( ) 15 1995 16 Morduch Sicular(2002) 20 21 ( 1999 ) 20 1995 0.41 0.43 0.5%( 1999) 21 2.1% 18.5 ( 1999) 15
22 1988 1995 1988 0.30 0.34 1995 0.35 0.42( 1999 ) 1988 1995 0.27 0.32 ( ) 3 1988 1995 0.50 0.45 23 13 20 10 ( 1999 ) ( / ) 23 24 ( 1999 ) ( ) 22 (1999) 1995 50.3% 33.4% 6.3% 10.9% 23 1995 78.3 21 90.6 5.1% 24 1995 5.4 13 1.4 ( 1999 ) 16
(1999 ) 1988 6.4 1995 6.4 90 90 25 1988 28% 1995 29%( 1999a) 1995 37.9% 21.3% 60% 1995 1.3 1999 (Meng 2001) 1995 10% 1999 30% 1995 22% 1999 60% (Meng 2001) 1995 1.4% 1999 9.1% 1995 2.4% 1999 6% 1999 25 1988 1995 ( 1999 ) 17
7 8 (Knight and Li 2001) 90 26 1988 1995 8 1988 32.6% 1995 32.8% 1988 25.3% 1995 24.6% 1988 0.13 1995 0.17 1988 0.25 1995 0.34( 1999b) 27 ( 1999 b) 1988 1995 18% 18% 30% 1988 3.09 1995 5.2 1988 1.78 1995 2.09( 1999 ) 1988 0.84 1995 0.82( 1999) 1988 1.8% 1995 16%( 1999) 26 Dong Bowles Ho (2002) 45 1000 3 1 27 (1999) 90 18
7%( 1999) 1988 ( 1994 1994) (J. Mincer) 1995 5.9% 1988 2 7.1% 5.2%( 1999) ( 1999a 1999) 1988 1.27 1995 1.54 1988 1995 0 1988 0.15 1995 0.39( 1999a) 1988 1995 12%( 1999) 1988 0.094 1995 0.168 ( 1999a) 28 1995 1999 3%(Meng 2001) 1995 ( 1999b) 1988 1206 1995 2254 ( 1999) 28 (C) (P) P=exp ( C) 1 19
29 ( 1997 1999a) 30 90 1996 3 20% 48% 4%( 1999) 171% 165% 31 1995 0.49 ( 1999b) 13 ( 2000) (Imputed rent) ( 1999a) 29 1999 10% 30 1995 (1997) 0.1 10 31 1995 0.49% 1.3% 20
15 1988 1992 1995 1997 0.1058 0.1384 0.1903 0.2144 1997 1988 103% 32 ( ) 1979 1983 60 1995 1997 40 1978 1983 50 1993 1997 90 ( 1998 302 ) 1997 1997 2000 25%( 2001 282 ) 25 ( 1) 1995 40% 9 30 32 4 0.0554 0.0728 0.1052 0.1206 21
33 34 33 1995 14.8% 25.1 11 ( 1999 ) 34 3 ( 1999 ) 22
20 U WTO (Wei and Wu 2001) U ( 1999) ( 2001) ( 1999) ( 23
1997) 90 ( 1999 b) 90 Adelmen Irma and David Sunding Economic Policy and Income Distribution in China. Journal of Comparative Economics 198711444-461. Ahmad Ehtisham and Yan Wang Inequality and Poverty in China Institutional Change and Public Policy 1978 to 1988. The World Bank Economic Review 19915231-257. Anand S. and S. Kanbur The Kuznets Process and the Inequality-Development Relationship. Journal of Development Economics 1993 4025-52. Bramall C. The Quality of China's Household Income Surveys. China Quarterly 2001 167 689-705. 1999 Carl Riskin Renwei Zhao and Shi Li China s Retreat from Equality: Income Distribution and Economic Transition. New York: M.E. Sharpe 2001. 2001 4 14-23 Cook Sarah Employment and Income Distribution in Rural China Household Responses to Market Transition. Ph.D. Dissertation Harvard University 1996. Dong X. P. Bowles and S. Ho The Determinants of Employee Ownership in China s Privatized Rural Industry: Evidence from Jiangsu and Shandong Journal of Comparative Economics 2002 30415-437. Gibson J. Jikun Huang and S. Rozelle Why Is Income Inequality So Low in China Compared to Other Countries? ---The Effect of Household Survey Methods. Economics Letters 20017129-33. Griffin K. and A. Saith The Pattern of Income Inequality in Rural China. Oxford Economic Papers 198234172-206. Griffin K. and Renwei Zhao The Distribution of Income in China. London : The MaCmilland Press 1993. 1994 1987 2001 24
(1949-1989) 1990 1999 Gustafsson B and Shi Li Income inequality within and across counties in rural China 1988 and 1995. Journal of Development Economics 2002 69 179-204. Gustafsson B. and Shi Li Inequality in China at the End of the 1980s: Locational Aspects and Household Characteristics. Asian Economic Journal March 199835-63. Hare Denise Rural Non-agricultural Employment Earnings and Income Evidence from Farm Households in southern China. Ph.D. Dissertation Stanford University 1992. Ho Samuel Rural China in Transition. Oxford:Clarendon Press 1994. Hussain A. P. Lanjouw and N. Stern Income Inequalities in China: Evidence from Household Survey Data. World Development 199422947-957. 1994 1988 1995 1999 Khan Azizur and Carl Riskin Income and Inequality in China: Composition Distribution and Growth of Household Income 1988 to 1995. China Quarterly 1998154 221-253. Khan Azizur Keith Griffin Carl Riskin and Renwei Zhao Household Income and its Distribution in China. China Quarterly 1992132 1029-1061. Knight John and Lina Song The Spatial Contribution to Income Inequality in Rural China. Cambridge Journal of Economics 1993 17195-213. Knight John and Lina Song The Rural-Urban Divide Economic Disparities and Interactions in China Oxford: Oxford University Press 1999. Knight John and Shi Li Three Poverties in Urban China. unpublished report 2001. 1999 Li Shi Economic Insecurity of Urban Households in China in 1990s. Prepared for Workshop on Development Toward Human Economic Social and Environmental Security October 30-November 1 2000 Beijing. 1994 1997 1 23-30 1999 2000 4 16 23 1999 4 3 13 1999(b) 1999(a) 1997 Meng Xin Economic Restructuring and Income Inequality in Urban China. Project paper 2001. 1999 25
1999 Putterman Louis Continuity & Change in China s Rural Development. Oxford and New York: Oxford University Press 1993. Ravallion M. and Shaohua Chen When Economic Reform Is Faster Than Statistical Reform: Measuring and Explaining Income Inequality in Rural China. Oxford Bulletin of Economics and Statistics 199961 33-56. 1996 157 2 9 Sato Hiroshi Growth of Market Relations in Post-reform Rural China: A Micro-analysis of Peasants Migrants and Peasant Entrepreneurs. London and New York: Routledge 2002. Selden Mark Income Inequality and the State. in William Parish ed. Chinese Rural Development New York: M.E. Sharpe Inc. 1985. Sen A On Economic Inequality. Oxford: Clarendon Press 1997. 199 ( ) 1996 1999 1994 10 3 10 Tsui Kai-yuen Trends and Inequalities of Rural Welfare in China: Evidence from Rural Households in Guangdong and Sichuan. Journal of Comparative Economics 1998 26 783-804. Wei Shang-jin and Yi Wu Globalization and Inequality Evidence from within China. Working Paper 8611 National Bureau of Economic Research 2001. The World Bank Sharing Rising Incomes: Disparities in China. Washington D.C.: The World Bank 1997. 1999 ( ) ( ) 1997 1985 3 10 19 ( ) 1993 1999 ( ) 1999 Zhu Ling Rural Reform and Peasant Income in China. London: MaCmillan 1991. 1994 A Review of Income Inequality in China SHI LI (Chinese Academy of Social Sciences) Abstract The paper summarizes the studies on income inequality in China in the last two decades. Several research issues are investigated and some important empirical findings are discussed as well. A fundamental issue the concept of personal income lacking an unambiguous and consistent understanding among researchers is particularly discussed in detail. The paper reviews the empirical results of the level and changes in rural inequality urban inequality and rural-urban income gap in the period of economic reform. The underlying causes leading to the increased inequalities are also surveyed. Finally the paper 26
proposes several research issues for further study. JEL Classification D31 D63 O53 27
2. 1978 1981 1983 1985 1986 1988 1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1997 2000 a Adelman and Sunding (1987) 0.22 0.26 0.21 0.24 0.25 0.23 0.30 0.31 0.31 0.31 0.31 0.33 0.32 0.34 0.33 0.35 The World Bank b 0.32 0.23 0.25 0.30 0.31 Selden(1985) 0.28 0.23 0.22 Ahmad and Wang (1991) 0.26 0.29 Khan and Riskin(1997) 0.34 0.42 Gustafsson and Li (1999) c 0.32 0.42 a Adelman and Sunding (1987) 0.17 0.15 The World Bank b 0.16 0.15 0.15 0.19 0.19 0.23 0.23 0.24 0.25 0.27 0.30 0.28 Ahmad and Wang (1991) 0.24 0.26 Khan and Riskin(1997) 0.23 0.33 Gustafsson and Li (1999) c 0.23 0.28 Adelman and Sunding (1987) d 0.32 (0.44) 0.28 (0.41) The World Bank e 0.29 0.39 Khan and Riskin(1997) 0.38 0.45 Gustafsson and Li (1999) c 0.39 0.46 28
a. (200129 ) 1995 (1996) 1995 b. Ahmad and Wang(1991) c. Gustafsson Li (1999) Khan and Riskin(1997) (equivalent income) d. Adelman Sunding (1987) e. World Bank (1997) 29