圓光佛學研究所畢業論文 指導教授 : 莊國彬老師 巴利語 苦蘊經 與相對應三部漢譯比較研究 A Comparative Study of the Mahādukkhakkhandhasutta with Its Three Chinese Parallels 研究生 : 釋明光 ( Rev.Wadinagala Pannaloka) 中華民國 100 年 6 月 3 日
Ⅰ Abstract The objective of this dissertation is to undertake a comparative study of the Mahādukkhakkhandhasutta 苦蘊經 with its three Chinese translations extant in the Chinese Agamas. Through the study, it is expected to get an understanding of the textual differences and doctrinal differences in these different versions. This is a textual study carried out through comparing four versions of the same discourse, which was kept for long by different Buddhist Sects. A reading into the similarities shared by these different versions and crucial divergences appeared in explaining the dhammic matters, would shed light to expand the knowledge on two earliest Buddhist textual traditions, Nikayas and Agamas. In order to materialize the purpose of the study, the dissertation has been devised into four chapters. In examining a discourse having four different versions, we could realize that all of them have been in conformity with the basic idea discussed in the text. For instance, the Mahādukkhakkhandhasutta 苦蘊經 describes suffering and three causes (sensuality, material form and feeling) conducive to suffering. All the three causes have been explained in terms of three aspects: gratification, danger and escape. In this case, the three Chinese versions share a great similarity. However, each parallel has been different from others in relation to the textual differences: where one text contains a detailed account of a certain matter, another text has given a short reference to the same matter. Remarkably, we can find that these different versions include independent interpretations to certain dhammic concepts. So, this study leads us to understand how the different sects have attempted to interpret the basic teachings of the Buddha within an acceptable limit. 1
Ⅱ Acknowledgement I would like to thank my personal supervisor, Dr. Cuang Kuo Ping for his invaluable advice, thought provoking comments and constructive criticisms in the completion of this thesis. I would also like to thank Venerable Dr. Sing Yi Shih, the Dean of the Yuan Kuang Buddhist Research Institute, for her useful instructions, suggestions and encouragement to make the dissertation a success. I owe my gratitude to Most Venerable Dr Ru Wu, the Director of the Institute, for providing a well-suited background to continue studies for three years without difficulty. And my thanks are also due to Venerable Sing Yen Shih, Venerable Dr. Toong Herng and all other teachers and friends. For me, the understanding gained through this study led me to have a deep impression on the interest shown by Buddhist Chinese translators to collect different versions of the texts to find out the accuracy of the teaching. 2
Ⅲ Declaration I hereby state that the present thesis titled A Comparative Study the Mahādukkhakkhandhasutta 苦蘊經 with Its Three Chinese Parallels is an investigation done by myself and this reflects my own ideas and conclusions arrived at through the research. This study is a part of the Master of Arts Research Degree Examination and it is confirmed by me that this study has not been produced as a fulfillment of another examination conducted by the Yuan Kuang Buddhist Research Institute or any other university. 3
V List of abbreviations AN ACT BCSD BHSGD CDB DN DPPN EA MN MA MLDB MLS PJD PED SED SN Sn Th.I. Vin Vism Anguttara Nikāya Anonymous Chinese Translation The Buddhist Chinese-Sanskrit Dictionary The Buddhist Hybrid Sanskrit Grammar and Dictionary The Connected Discourses of the Buddha (Translation of the Samyutta Nikāya ) Dīgha Nikāya Dictionary of Pāli Proper Names Ekottarāgama Majjhima Nikāya Madhyamāgama The Middle Length Discourses of the Buddha (Translation of the Majjhima Nikāya ) Middle Length Sayings Pāli-Japanese Dictionary Pāli-English Dictionary Sanskrit-English Dictionary Samyutta Nikāya Sutta Nipāta Theragāthā Vinaya Visuddhimagga 4
V Contents Abstract Acknowledge Declaration List of Abbreviation Contents I II III IV V Chapter I Introduction 06 1.1. Introduction to the topic 06 1.2. The Research Problem 06 1.3. Literature Review 07 1.4. Sources 09 1.5. Outline 12 Chapter II The Characteristics of the Mahādukkhakkhandhasutta 苦蘊經 14 2.1. Two categories of suttas dealing with dukkha 14 2.1.1. The first category: introductory suttas on dukkha 15 2.1.2. The Second category: detailed suttas on dukkha: 18 2.2. The cause of suffering: taṇhā or avijjā 20 2.3. The Characteristics of the Mahādukkhakkhandhasutta 苦蘊經 23 2.3.1. Mahādukkhakkhandhasutta: a detailed account 24 2.3.1.1. Sensuality (kāmā- 欲望 / 婬 ) 25 2.3.1.2. Material form (rūpa- 色 ) 28 2.3.1.3. Feeling (vedanā- 痛 / 覺 ) 39 2.3.2. The doctrinal basis of the discourse- taṇhā ( 渴愛 ) 30 2.3.2.1. Sensuality (kāma- 欲望 / 婬 ) 30 2.3.2.2. Material form (rūpa- 色 ) 36 2.3.2.3. Feeling (vedanā- 痛 / 覺 ) 39 Chapter III-I The Comparison 44 Chapter III-II Translation 84 Chapter III.III Critical reading into the comparison 100 Chapter IV Conclusion 128 Bibliography 130 5
Chapter I Introduction 1.1. Introduction to the topic The suttapiṭaka or the Nikāyas ( 尼柯耶 ) belonging to the Theravada school of Buddhism has got its counterpart in the Northern Buddhism known as Āgama 阿含經. The Nikāyas are available in Pāli whereas the Āgama is in Classical Chinese. In spite of the similarity shown with regard to the doctrinal matters in these two collections, there are significant divergences between them regarding the verbal contents and doctrinal interpretations. Moreover, as these two sets of Buddhist works represent a rather old textual tradition of Buddhism, the comparison of similarities and dissimilarities in them has become an interesting field of study among the Buddhist scholars. Due to the fact that the Nikāyas and Āgama, before, they reached their present form, had been involved in the causes like oral tradition, sectarian differences and the openness for the insertion of new discourses into the mainstream textual bulk, they have taken variances in textual contents and interpretational divergences. So, it is worthwhile to examine each discourse in them through the comparative light to understand how far they have differed from each other in presenting the textual content and doctrinal interpretations. This space for research made me interested in engaging in a comparative reading into a selected discourse from the suttapiṭaka. For the study, I have selected the discourse titled Mahādukkhakkhandhasutta 苦蘊經 1 seen in the Majjhima Nikāya 中部 with its three Chinese versions extant in the Āgama. 1.2. The research problem The Mahādukkhakkhandhasutta 2 reveals a teaching on suffering: the phenomenon of suffering is explained in relation to sensuality (kāma- 欲愛 ), material form (rūpa- 色 ) and feeling (vedanā- 痛 / 覺 ); each of these causes is discussed in terms of 1 The Majjhima Nikāya contains a discourse titled Cūladukkhakkhandhasuttaṁ (MN.I.91-95) which also has been translated into Chinese with the title 苦蘊經,T1,586b~588a. It should be noted that in this study, the Chinese title 苦蘊經 is exlusively used for the Mahādukkhakkhandhasuttaṁ found at MN.I.83-90. 2 Bhikkhu Nanamoli and Bhikkhu Bodhi in their translation for the Majjhima Nikāya titled The Middle Length Discourses of the Buddha has translated this sutta as The Greater Discourse on the Mass of Suffering (MLDB.178-185) and I.B. Horner in her The Middle Length Sayings has translated this sutta as The Greater Discourse on the Stems of Anguish (MLS.I.110-119). 6
its gratification (assāda- 氣味 / 味 ), danger (ādīnava- 敗壞 / 患 / 過 ) and escape (nissaraṇa- 棄 / 出要 / 捨離 ). 3 Through this method, the text has presented a discussion on the truth of suffering (dukkha sacca- ādīnava), the truth of origin of suffering (dukkha samudaya sacca- assāda) and the truth of the way leading to the end of suffering (dukkhanirodhagāmini paṭipada sacca-nissaraṇa). The three Chinese parallels of this sutta revolve around the same theme and adopt the same method as in the Pāli text. 4 But, when we examine verbal contents and certain points of doctrinal interpretation, the Pāli version remarkably differs from the Chinese versions. 5 The problem to be addressed in this study is how these differences occurred to the texts. In answer to the question why there are differences in the verbal contents of the four different parallels, I will point out that it is a result of oral tradition, the medium through which the Buddhist texts were kept until they were written down. As to the divergences in doctrinal interpretations, I will point out that it is a historical fact can be traced to the Buddha s time since when the Buddhists started to offer different views regarding the teachings given by the Buddha. And during the sectarian Buddhism, these differences became apparent as these sects had possessed their own tipiṭaka/tripiṭaka ( 三藏 : sutta, vinaya and abhidhamma- 經, 律, 論 ) collections 6 were not written down. and it was inevitable that the insertion of their views into the texts which 1.3. Literature Review At present, even though we can see certain attempts by the scholars to read the Pāli Nikāyas with the Chinese Āgama in comparative light, as the literature is very vast, still there is a vast space for further studies. One of the noteworthy efforts from comparative light to examine the Pāli Nikāyas and the Chinese Āgama was done by 3 MN.I.85: Evaṁvādino bhikkhave aññatitthiyā paribbājakā evamassu vacanīyā: Ko pan āvuso kāmānaṁ assādo ko ādīnavo kiṁ nissaraṇaṁ, ko rūpānaṁ assādo ko ādīnavo kiṁ nissaraṇaṁ, ko vedanānaṁ assādo ko ādīnavo kiṁ nissaraṇan-ti ; T1, 584c(MA): 彼時, 世尊告諸比丘 : 汝等, 即時, 應如是問眾多異學 : 諸賢! 云何欲味? 云何欲患? 云何欲出要? 云何色味? 云何色患? 云何色出要? 云何覺味? 云何覺患? 云何覺出要? ; T1, 846c (ACT);T2, 604c (EA) 4 Ibid. 5 Chapter III.III.52.3 6 H.Akira, A History of Indian Buddhism,p.114f; N.Dutt, Buddhist Sects in India, pp.59, 59 fn.2,137, 173 fn.1 7
Chizen Akanuma through his work, The Comparative Catalogue of Chinese Agamas and Pali Nikayas. In this work, he has revealed that the Mahādukkhakkhandhasutta has got three parallels in the Āgama. 7 As he makes no any further reading to the contents of the discourse, there still remains a gap to fill. The work by Bhiksu Thich Minh Chau titled The Chinese Madhyama Āgama and the Pāli Majjhima Nikāya is a detailed study of the two sources. 8 Even though he has attempted to compare certain doctrinal teachings and the contents in some suttas, his comparison has been limited to the Sanghadeva s translation of the Madhyamāgama with the Majjhima Nikāya. As for the Mahādukkhakkhandhasutta, Chau only mentions its Chinese parallel translated by Sanghadeva. 9 Thus, he leaves a lacuna to be filled by later researchers to carry out a study on this sutta both for a comparison between the Pāli version with the Sanghadeva s translation and with other Chinese versions as it has got two more parallels, one as an individual translation 10 and the other in the Ekottarāgama. 11 In this study, I have selected the Sanghadeva s translation of the Mahādukkhakkhandhasutta 苦蘊經 12 with other two Chinese versions and have compared them all with the Pāli version. There are attempts by modern scholars to translate and compare the Ekottarāgama with Pāli parallels. Bhikkhu Pāsādika and Thích Huyèn-Vi under the title Ekottara Agama have translated a series of Chinese versions of the Ekottarāgama into English with critical insights. 13 Yet, they still have not translated the Ekottarāgama version of the Mahādukkhakkhandhasutta. In this study, though I have not translated the Ekottarāgama version into English, I have compared it with the Pāli version and 7 C. Akanuma, The Comparative Catalogue of Chinese Agamas and Pali Nikayas,p.164 8 B.T.M.Chau, The Chinese Madhyama Āgama and the Pāli Majjhima Nikāya, 1991. 9 Ibid.p.52 10 T1, 584c~586a 11 T2, 604c~606c 12 T1, 846c~848a 13 Bhikkhu Pasadika and Thích Huyèn-Vi, Ekottarāgama in Buddhist Studies Review, Vol.10 No.2,1993, pp.213-222; Vol.11 No.1,1994,pp.50-66; Vol.11 No.2,1994,pp.157-170; Vol.12 No.2,1995, pp.157-168; Vol.13 No.1,1996,pp.55-66; Vol.13 No.2,1996,pp.149-151; Vol.15 No.1,1998, pp.65-70; Vol.15 No.2,1998,pp.205-212; Vol.16 No.1,1999,pp.71-79; Vol.16 No.2,1999,pp.207-214 Printed by Linh-So n Buddhist Association,76 Beulah Hill, Upper Norwood, London SE19 3EW 8
examined crucial points whereby they differ from each other. For this study, the Ekottarāgama version bears a great significance as it remarkably differ from the Pāli and other Chinese translation in the case of defining the gratification of feeling; Pāli and other two Chinese texts define the gratification of feeling in relation to the four material contemplative states (rūpa jhāna) whereas the Ekottarāgama defines it in terms of observation of feeling in sixfold manners. 14 The attempt of comparing the Mahādukkhakkhandhasutta with its version in the Ekottarāgama paves the way for a valuable revelation in the field of comparative studies between Nikāyas and Agamas. Venerable Analayo has tried to treat some Pāli suttas with their Chinese parallels. In his course of study, he has compared two Pāli suttas with their Chinese texts each as separate study. The first study is the comparison of the Pāli Sāleyyakasutta with its parallel of the Chinese Samyuktāgama; 15 the second work is titled What the Buddha Would Not Do, According to the Bāhitika-sutta and its Madhyama-āgama Parallel. 16 this study, I have selected the method followed by Analayo, that is, to select a single Pāli text and compare it with the Chinese parallel. However, slightly deviating from the Analayo s method, I have taken all the versions of the Chinese Agama and compare them with the Pāli sutta. 1.4. Sources For this study, I have selected one Pāli sutta and its three Classical Chinese parallels. The versions used to study represent three different Buddhist sects, these are, the Sanghadeva s translation of the Sarvāstivāda ( 有部 ) school, the Ekottarāgama version of the Mahāsanghika ( 大眾部 ) school, and the Pāli version of the Sthaviravāda ( 上座部 ). As the translator is not known, we cannot decide the third Chinese version belong to which sect. In spite of diversity as to the sects, we can perceive unanimity existed with regard to the basic doctrinal concepts like suffering ( 苦諦 ). Specially, the similarity between the version of the Mahāsanghika sect and that of the Sthaviravāda provokes us to reconsider certain views about the differences among these two sects because these two are juxtaposed as the first two divisions emerged within the Buddhist In 14 Chapter III.III.52.3 15 Journal of Buddhist Ethics, ISSN 1076-9002:http://www.buddhistethics.Org/13/anaalayo-article.html 16 Journal of Buddhist Ethics, ISSN 1076-9005:http://www.buddhistethics.org/Volume 14, 2007 9
order. The Nikāya texts of the Theravada Buddhism and the Āgama texts of the Northern Buddhism are accepted to be the earlier layer of Buddhist texts. At the first council (sangīti- 結集 ) held after the Buddha s passing away (B.C.480), both the vinaya and sutta collections were recited. 17 At this council, the suttapitaka was arranged into five Nikāyas, Dīgha Nikāya (Long Discourses- 長部 ), Majjhima Nikāya (Middle Length Discourses- 中部 ), Samyutta Nikāya (Connected Discourses - 相應部 ), Anguttara Nikāya (Numerical Discourses 增支部 - ) and the Khuddaka Nikāya (Smaller Discourses- 小部 ). 18 In categorization of the texts in this manner, it has been taken into consideration the quantity and the nature of contents of the discourses. After few centuries of this event, the Theravāda school, which adopted Pāli (Māgadhi prākrit) as the language, put their tipiṭaka collection into writing at the end of the third decade of the first century C.E. in Sri Lanka. 19 The Āgama consists of translations of sutta discourses which show a great similarity to the Pāli Nikāya texts. It is made up of four collections ( 四部阿含 ), namely, Dīrghāgama 長阿含經, Madhyamāgama 中阿含經, Samyuktāgama 雜阿含經, and Ekottarāgama 增一阿含經. Hsuan-tsang of T ang dynasty has mentioned of a fifth collection, Ksudrakāgama. 20 Each important school of Śrāvakayāna Buddhism had its own four Āgamas, differing from those of other schools in contents as well as in the arrangement of contents. 21 The Chinese versions of the four Āgamas were produced one after another within a limited time of fifty years from the late Eastern Chin to the early Southern and Northern dynasties. The Madhyamāgama and the Ekottarāgama were the first to translate. Both of them were translated and compiled by Dharmanandi at the dates of 384 and 385 CE respectively. 22 Later, Dharmanadi s version of Madhyamāgama was lost and the one that is extant today is the translation by Sanghadeva in 398 C.E. By Buddhayasas, the Dīrghāgama was translated in 413 C.E. 17 Cullavaggapāli,pp.286-87 18 Sīlakkhandhavaggaṭṭhakathā (Sumangalavilasini) Part I (Devanagari Edition),p.15 19 Mahāvamsa,33,100-101; E.W.Adikaram, Early History of Buddhism in Ceylon,p.79 20 LÜ Cheng, Āgama in Encyclopaedia of Buddhism, Fascicle 1:A-Acala,p.241 21 E.Lamotte, History of Indian Buddhism,pp.149-164 22 LÜ Cheng, op.cit.,p.242 10
The last translation was that of Samyuktāgama by Gunabhadra during 435-53 C.E. 23 As to the sectarian origin of the four agamas, the Dīrghāgama is attributed to the Dharmaguptaka sect and the Madhyamāgama to the Sarvāstivāda School. The Samyuktāgama and the Ekottarāgama belong to Mūlasarvāstivāda and to Mahāsanghikas respectively. 24 As to the Ekottarāgama, following the view of Warder, F. Watanabe says that it should belong to the Dharmaguptaka sect. 25 According to André Bareau, as it is not certain to which sect originally the Ekottarāgama belonged, many hypotheses have been proposed regarding its origin and the most likely among them is the emanating from the Mahāsanghikas for there are no precise data to suggest a different assumption. 26 The Mahādukkhakkhandhasutta of the Majjhima Nikāya and its three Chinese parallels form the basic literary sources are for the present study. The Pāli Majjhima Nikāya is accepted to be one of the texts representing the earliest layer of the Pāli literature. In comparison to the discourses in the Dīgha Nikāya, which consists of long discourses, the discourses in this collection are shorter that it is called Majjhima Nikāya (Middle Length) collection. Totally, it has 152 suttas which are grouped into sets of fifties (paṇṇāsaka), the last containing fifty two. Each set of fifty is further grouped into chapters or divisions (vaggas- 品 ) having ten discourses. The Mahādukkhakkhandhasutta is placed at number thirteen from the beginning and included in the second chapter (Sīhanādavagga-The Division of the Lion s Roar) of the first fifty (Mūḷapaṇṇāsakapāli). In the Chinese Āgama, the counterpart of the Pāli Nikāyas, there are three different parallels of the Mahādukkhakkhandhasutta. Out of the three, one version is found in the Madhyamāgama (Chung Āhan Jing- 中阿含經 ) which is titled as Khu Yin Jing 苦陰經 27, and grouped into the ninth chapter named In Ping ( 因品 ). This sutta is included in the Sanghadeva s translation of the Madhyamāgama. The second Chinese parallel exists as an individual sutta and also is missing its translator. It is found at T1, 846 c and is titled as Fo Suo Khu Yin Jing 佛說苦陰經. 28 The third one is included in 23 Ibid 24 Ibid. 25 F. Watanabe, Philosophy and Its Development in The Nikayas and Abhidhamma,p.5,fn.3 26 A. Bareau, The End of the Buddha s Life According to the Ekottaragama in Buddhist Studies Review, Vol.16,No.2, p.141 27 T1, 584c~586a 28 T1, 846c~848a 11
the Ekottarāgama (Cheng Yi Ahan Jing- 增一阿含經 ). 29 Dharmanandi (or Sanghadeva) 30 Ping 三寶品. This parallel goes without a title. This was translated by and included as the ninth discourse of the San Pao In this study, I have selected four versions of a discourse, extant in Pāli and in Classical Chinese to compare; the Pāli version is compared with its Chinese parallels, which were translated by different translators and included in different texts. In the course of comparison, I have tried to recognize major divergences seen among the four versions and have attempted to explain what would they indicate. The comparison is implemented with the aid of a chart format and the text is divided into sixty two sections. Where it seems necessary to delineate the important similarities and divergences, such places have been provided with brief notes in line with the numbers used in the comparison chart. In order to make it easier to understand the Pāli scripture, I have included a new translation in modern Chinese. Further, for the use of clarifying certain ideas, concepts and difficulties of the primary sources, I will refer to secondary sources, journal articles and dictionaries of Pāli, Sanskrit, Chinese and English. 1.5. Outline In order to reach the objective of the study, I have devised the paper into four chapters; the first chapter serving as the introduction to the topic, first makes a brief note to the research topic and surveys the contemporary studies in this area. In the second half, research materials are introduced and the third half includes a reference to the methodology adopted in the study. The last section presents an account on the chapters of the work. The second chapter titled The Characteristics of the Mahādukkhakkhandhasutta has attempted to recognize the special value of the discourse. In the first section, an attempt is made to recognize two categories of suttas (introductory and descriptive) dealing with the teaching of suffering. In the second section, the discussion of the cause of suffering (taṇhā and avijjā) is treated. In the last section, I will discuss the characteristics of the Mahādukkhakkhandhasutta in relation to the two 29 T2, 604c~606c 30 T2, 601c mentions that 三寶品 was translated by Sanghadeva. 12
categories of suttas and in relation to the discussion of the cause of suffering. In conclusion of this chapter, it will be pointed out that this sutta is descriptive in style and its discussion of suffering is based craving (taṇhā) as the cause of suffering. The third chapter is presented in three parts. The first part is the comparison of the Pāli discourse with its Chinese parallels; the second part is the new translation of the Pāli discourse. The last part is the critical examination into the contents of the texts and this is done in accordance with the numbers used in the first part of the chapter. The fourth chapter, the conclusion, includes the remarks derived through the comparison of the four versions of the selected discourse. Here, I will point out, though the four versions belong to different sectarian origins, they share a great similarity in dealing with the concept included, suffering. In spite of the great similarity found between the Pāli and Ekottarāgama versions, I will show that they have adopted different ways of interpreting dhammic concepts (here gratification of vedanā).specially, the similarity of the version in the Ekottarāgama (of the Mahāsanghika sect) to that of the Pāli version provokes us to reconsider the historical disagreements deemed to exist between the two sects. 13
Chapter II The Characteristics of the Mahādukkhakkhandhasutta 苦蘊經 In this chapter, I am going to discuss the characteristics of the Mahādukkhakkhandhasutta 苦蘊經 and they are divided into two aspects: the first aspect is concerned with the textual form adopted in presenting the teaching of suffering in this sutta; the second aspect is concerned with the main doctrine of the discourse. As to the textual form, I will point out that suttas in the Pāli canon can be divided into two categories, introductory and descriptive. With regard to the doctrinal basis, I will refer to the discussion still going on among the modern Buddhist researchers concerned with the main cause of suffering, whether Craving (taṇhā- 渴愛, 愛欲 ) or Ignorance (avijjā- 無明 ). In the final section of this chapter, I will try to determine the textual characteristics of the Mahādukkhakkhandhasutta, whether it is introductory or descriptive and what is the doctrinal foundation, taṇhā or avijjā, the account of suffering in this sutta revolves on. 2.1. Two categories of suttas dealing with dukkha As the Buddha himself states, his whole career of teaching is centred on the task of explaining what is suffering (dukkha- 苦 ) and its cessation (nirodha- 苦滅 ). 31 statement we can learn that the concept of suffering is so fundamental to the early From this Buddhism. The Buddha in his first discourse, Dhammacakkappavattanasutta 轉法輪 經, briefly introduced his articulation of the teaching of suffering through the formula of the four noble truths ( 四聖諦 ). 32 They are namely, the noble truth of suffering (dukkaṁ ariya saccaṁ- 苦聖諦 ), the noble truth of origin of suffering (dukkha samudaya ariya saccaṁ- 苦集聖諦 ), the noble truth of cessation of suffering (dukkha nirodha ariya saccaṁ- 苦滅聖諦 ) and the noble truth of path to the cessation of suffering (dukkha nirodhagamini paṭipadā ariya saccaṁ- 苦滅道跡聖諦 ). These are truths achieved through wisdom (paññā - 智慧 ) in that they are so deep to realize by the ordinary beings. Once the Buddha states that the shades of the meaning of dukkha are numerous and this is 31 MN.I.140;SN.III.119 32 SN.V.421f,Vin.I.10f; T2,103c~104a 14
a so deep concept. 33 A reading into the Pāli suttapiṭaka ( 巴利經典 ) reveals us that the texts have manifested themselves in many ways to explain the concept of suffering. According to the nature of their function in presenting the teaching, the suttas (dealing with suffering) can be divided into two groups: 1. Introductory suttas on the teaching of suffering 2. The suttas providing detailed accounts of the teaching of suffering. 2.1.1. The first category: introductory suttas on dukkha As it was mentioned above, the discussion given by Buddha in the Dhammacakkappavattanasutta is limited to a brief account on suffering. As it presents: Now this, bhikkhus, is the noble truth of suffering: birth is suffering, aging is suffering, illness is suffering, death is suffering; union with what is displeasing is suffering; separation from what is pleasing is suffering; not to get what one wants is suffering; in brief, five aggregates subject to clinging is suffering. Now this, bhikkhus, is the noble truth of the origin of suffering: it is this craving which leads to renewed existence, accompanied by delight and lust, seeking delight here and there; that is craving fro sensual pleasures, craving for existence, craving for extermination. Now this, bhikkhus, is the noble truth of the cessation of suffering: it is remainderless fading away and cessation of that same craving, the giving up and relinquishing of it, freedom from it, nonreliance of it. Now this, bhikkhus, is the noble truth of the leading to the cessation of suffering: it is this noble eightfold path; that is right view right concentration. This is the noble truth of suffering...the noble truth of the leading to the cessation of suffering: thus bhikkhus, in regard to things unheard before, there arose in me vision, knowledge, wisdom, true knowledge, and light. 34 It is clear that this text gives the reader an idea what is suffering. Yet, when it is 33 Vin.I.10 34 CDB.p.1844 15
compared with some other texts in the same line, we can see that this account is not detailed enough. 35 On the other hand, this discourse was offered to a group of spiritual seekers, the five ascetics (pañcavaggiya bhikkhus- 五比丘 ), who had a lot of experiences about the problem of human life. 36 So, a brief explanation might be enough for them to get the insight into the truth of reality. It is evident from the fact that at the end of the sermon, Aññā Koṇḍañña ( 阿若憍陣如 ) attained the first stage of spiritual path, stream-entering (sotāpanna- 須陀洹 ). 37 However, the brief explanation on the four truths seems not clear enough for the followers who joined the Order later. When we examine the treatment given in the Saccavibhangasutta 分別聖諦經 38 for the truth of suffering and the truth of leading to cessation of suffering, it is evident that the early Buddhists had engaged in the task of expanding the doctrine of four truths, dukkha. In the Dhammacakkappavattanasutta, the first truth of suffering is explained in terms of eight facts which are common experiences to every human being. And, we can say that this is a collection of events which are both physically and mentally unpleasant. Moreover, this short account of suffering can be considered as a definition given for suffering. In the Saccavibhangasutta, going forward in the explanation as to what is suffering, Sāriputta adds five more items to the first truth and clarifies each item with more details. 39 For example, the Dhammacakkappavattanasutta refers to birth (jāti- 生 ) as one form of suffering without any clarification. 40 In the case of Saccavibhangasutta, after defining what is suffering in terms of ten modes, Sāriputta begins to gloss all of them one by one. First he takes up the topic of birth (jāti- 生 ) and glosses it as follows: And what, friends, is birth? The birth of beings into the various orders of beings, their coming into birth, precipitation [in a womb], generation, the 35 W.Rahula, What The Buddha Taught,p.30 36 P.Harvey, An Introduction to Buddhism,p.47 37 Vin.I.12; T22,788b: 五比丘阿若憍陳如諸塵垢盡得法眼生 38 MN.III.248-252;T1,467a~469c 39 MN.III.249f: namely i.soka (sorrow), ii. parideva (lamentation), iii. dukkha (pain), iv. domanassa (grief), v. upāyāsa (despair); In the Chinese parallel of the Saccavibhangasutta mentions only eightfold aspects given in the Dhammacakkappavattanasutta: T1, 467b: 云何苦聖諦? 謂生苦 老苦 病 苦 死苦 怨憎會苦 愛別離苦 所求不得苦 略五盛陰苦 40 Vin.I.10f 16
manifestation of aggregates, obtaining the bases for contact-this is called birth. 41 When one closely examines this description, though it has put a step further than the Dhammcakkasutta, we can see that still only serves the purpose of defining what is suffering but does not describe how jāti becomes suffering. If we look into the post canonical literature, it can be seen that the tradition had felt the need of further clarifying for the modes of suffering given in the early discourses. Hence, we can say that in presenting certain ideas, the early texts have tended to be concise. Buddhaghosa has undertaken the duty of describing how birth becomes a suffering. The Visuddhimagga mentions: Here the suffering classed as rooted in the descent into the womb, and so on, is this: when this being is born in the mother s womb like a worm in rotting fish, rotting dough, cess-pools, etc., he is born in the belly in a position that is below the receptacle for undigested food (stomach), above the receptacle for digested food(rectum)..and on being reborn there for ten months he undergoes excessive suffering, being cooked like a pudding in a bag by the heat produced in the mother s womb, and steamed like a dumpling of dough, with no bending, stretching and so on. So this, firstly, is the suffering rooted in the decent into the womb. 42 What we can learn from these textual references is that since the first time of presenting the doctrine of suffering, up to later ages when the commentaries and summaries of the teaching(like the Visuddhimagga) were composed, the authors have tried to illustrate the concept of suffering. 41 MLDB.p.1098; MN.III.249: Katamā cāvuso, jāti? Yā tesaṁ tesaṁ sattānaṁ tamhi tamhi sattanikāye jāti sañjāti okkanti abhinibbatti khandhānaṁ pātubhāvo āyatanānaṁ paṭilābho, ayaṁ vuccatāvuso jāti ; T1, p 467c: 諸賢! 說生苦者, 此說何因? 諸賢! 生者, 謂彼眾生 彼彼眾生種類 生則生 出則出 成則成 興起五陰 已得命根, 是名為生 諸賢! 生苦者, 謂眾生生時, 身受苦受 遍受 覺 遍覺 ; 心受苦受, 遍受 覺, 遍覺 ; 身心受苦受, 遍受, 覺, 遍覺 ; 身熱受, 遍受 覺, 遍覺 ; 心熱受, 遍受 覺, 遍覺 ; 身心熱受, 遍受 覺, 遍覺 ; 身壯熱煩惱憂慼受, 遍受 覺, 遍覺 ; 心壯熱煩惱憂慼受, 遍受 覺, 遍覺 ; 身心壯熱煩惱憂慼受, 遍受 覺, 遍覺 諸賢! 說生苦者, 因此故說 From the Chinese version, we can see that it is more detailed than the Pāli version. 42 The Path of Purification, p.569 17
2.1.2. The second category: detailed suttas on dukkha: The four truths through which the Buddha s view and solution to human suffering was revealed, give rise to the production of a vast literature related to each aspect of them. As it is noted above, the Dhammacakkappavattanasutta is limited to the task of defining what is suffering, what is origin of suffering, what is the cessation of suffering and what is the method to eradicate suffering. Some other suttas just select one or two out of these four and try to explain in different angles. Here we can say that such an attempt is in line with the Buddha s guidance how to deal with each truth. In the Samyutta Nikāya 相應部, he says that first truth of suffering (dukkha) has to be well understood (pariññāta- 苦聖諦智當復知 ) and the second truth of arising of suffering (samudaya) has to be eradicated (pahātabba- 苦集聖諦已知當斷 ); the third truth of cessation of suffering (nirodha) is a result of cultivation ( 苦滅聖諦已知當知作證 ) and the last one of the way of putting end to suffering (paṭipadā) is to cultivate (bhāvetabba- 苦滅道跡聖諦已知當修 ). 43 In the texts, it is mentioned that it is not difficult to realize suffering by ordinary persons. If we want to educate people on something, we need to adopt various teaching methods and provide them even with minute information. It was the same practice that was adopted by the redactors of Pāli texts. In order to make people aware of what they are experiencing every moment, the texts tried to look into the concept of suffering from various ways. In order to realize how the second truth has been treated in the suttapiṭaka in different ways, let us take a few suttas. The Dhammacakkappavattanasutta presents a brief account about craving (taṇhā) as the cause of suffering and marginally says it makes people hang in here and there and leads to continuous rebirth. It comes into appearance in three modes, craving for sensual pleasure (kāmataṇhā- 欲愛 ), craving for self-assertion (bhavataṇhā- 有愛 ) and craving for annihilation (vibhavataṇhā- 無有愛 ). 44 The 43 SN.V.421f;T2,103c 44 Vin.I.10f: Idaṁkho pana, bhikkhave, dukkhasamudayaṁ ariyasaccaṁ yāyaṁ taṇhā ponobbhavikā nandīrāgasahagatā tatratatrābhinandinī, seyyathidaṁ kāmataṇhā, bhavataṇhā, vibhavataṇhā; T22, 788a: 何等為苦集聖諦? 緣愛本所生, 與欲相應愛樂, 是謂苦集聖諦 18
Saccavibhangasutta, though has treated the first truth and the fourth truth in detail, for the second and the third truths, only gives the same description found in the Dhammacakkappavattanasutta. 45 In some other suttas, we can find each of these modes has been provided with details. The Dhammacakkappavattanasutta only defines what sensual pleasure is and considers it as conducive to recurrent existence. Furthering the Buddhist understanding of sensual pleasure, many Pāli suttas have discussed in depth how it functions to create suffering in this life and next one. For example, by using similies from day to day life, the Māgandiyasutta 鬚閑提經 46 provides a very convincing message how sensuality causes sentient beings suffer. To take one simile: Māgandiya, it is like a leper, a man with his limbs all ravaged and festering, and who being eaten by vermin, tearing his open sores with his nails, scorches his body over a charcoal pit. But the more, Māgandiya, this leper, a man with his limbs scorches his body over a charcoal pit, the more those open sores of his become septic and evil-smelling and putrefying and there is only a sorry relief and satisfaction to be had from scratching the open sores. Even so, Māgandiya, do beings who are not yet devoid of attachment to pleasures of the senses, while being consumed by the craving fro sense-pleasures, pursue sense pleasures; and the more these beings who are not yet devoid of attachment to pleasures of the senses pursue them, the more their craving for sense-pleasures increases, the more they burn with the fever for sense-pleasures, and moreover there is only a sorry relief and satisfaction to be had from the five strands of sense-pleasures. 47 45 MN.III.248-252 46 MN.I.501ff;T1,670a~673a 47 MLS.II.p.187; T1,671b~671c: 世尊告曰 : 鬚閑提! 猶人病癩, 身體爛熟 為蟲所食 爪擿瘡開, 臨火坑炙 鬚閑提! 於意云何? 若病癩人, 身體爛熟 為蟲所食 爪擿瘡開 臨火坑炙 如是, 寧得除病有力 不壞諸根 為脫癩病 身體完健 平復如故, 還本所耶? 答世尊曰 : 不也, 瞿曇! 所以者何? 若病癩人, 身體爛熟 為蟲所食 爪擿瘡開, 臨火坑炙 如是, 更生瘡轉增多 本瘡轉大, 然, 彼反以癩瘡為樂 鬚閑提! 如病癩人, 身體爛熟 為蟲所食 爪擿瘡開, 臨火坑炙 如是, 更生瘡轉增多 本瘡轉大 然, 彼反以癩瘡為樂 鬚閑提! 如是, 眾生未離欲 為欲愛所食 為欲熱所熱, 而行於欲 鬚閑提! 如是, 眾生未離欲 為欲愛所食 為欲熱所熱, 而行於欲 如是, 欲轉增多 欲愛轉廣 然 彼反以欲愛為樂 彼若不斷欲, 不離欲愛 內息心 已行 當行 今行者 終無是處 19
Another example for descriptive discourses on suffering, particularly variety of modes in appearance of suffering from sensual pleasures is the Piyajātikasutta 愛生經. It refers to many sort of sensual objects and how their change brings about suffering. 48 It can be seen that the doctrine given in the Dhammacakkappavattanasutta has been elaborated in other texts. 2.2. The cause of suffering: taṇhā or avijjā In the explanation of the cause of suffering, the Buddha states that it will never be a single cause and there are many causes and conditions which function together in generating psycho-physical pain. 49 In general, taṇhā (craving 50, thirst 51, desire 52 ) and avijjā (ignorance) come to be emphasized in general as the causes of suffering. However, it should be mentioned that the discourses concerned with the second noble truth only refer to craving (taṇhā) as the sole cause of suffering. Moreover, we can find in the Pāli 48 MN.II.108: Evametaṁ, brāhmaṇa, evametaṁ, brāhmaṇa! Piyajātikā hi, brāhmaṇa, sokaparidevadukkhadomanassupāyāsā piyappabhavikāti. Tadamināpetaṁ, brāhmaṇa, pariyāyena veditabbaṁ yathā piyajātikā sokaparidevadukkhadomanassupāyāsā piyappabhavikā. Bhūtapubbaṁ, brāhmaṇa, imissāyeva sāvatthiyā aññatarassa purisassa mātā kālamakāsi. So tassā kālakiriyāya ummattako khittacitto rathikāya rathikaṁ siṅghāṭakena siṅghāṭakaṁ upasaṅkamitvā evamāha api me mātaraṁ addassatha, api me mātaraṁ addassathā ti? Imināpi kho etaṁ, brāhmaṇa, pariyāyena veditabbaṁ yathā piyajātikā sokaparidevadukkhadomanassupāyāsā piyappabhavikāti.bhūtapubbaṁ, brāhmaṇa, imissāyeva sāvatthiyā aññatarassa purisassa pitā kālamakāsi bhātā kālamakāsi bhaginī kālamakāsi putto kālamakāsi dhītā kālamakāsi pajāpati kālamakāsi. So tassā kālakiriyāya ummattako khittacitto rathikāya rathikaṁ siṅghāṭakena siṅghāṭakaṁ upasaṅkamitvā evamāha api me pajāpatiṁṃ addassatha, api me pajāpatiṁ addassathā ti? Imināpi kho etaṁ, brāhmaṇa, pariyāyena veditabbaṁ yathā piyajātikā sokaparidevadukkhadomanassupāyāsā piyappabhavikāti; T01, 801b: 那利鴦伽梵志, 受王教已 即詣佛所 共相問訊 卻坐一面, 白曰 : 瞿曇! 拘薩羅王波斯匿, 問訊 聖體康強 安快 無病 起居輕便 氣力, 如常耶? 沙門瞿曇, 實如是說 : 若愛生時, 便生愁慼 啼哭 憂苦 煩惋 懊惱耶? 世尊告曰 : 那利鴦伽! 我今問汝, 隨所解答 那利鴦伽! 於意云何? 若使有人, 母命終者, 彼人發狂 心大錯亂 脫衣 裸形 隨路遍走, 作如是說 : 諸賢! 見我母耶? 諸賢! 見我母耶? 那利鴦伽! 以此事故可知, 若愛生時, 便生愁慼 啼哭 憂苦 煩惋 懊惱 如是, 父 兄 姊 妹也 ; 兒 婦命終, 彼人發狂 心大錯亂 脫衣 裸形 隨路遍走, 作如是說 : 諸賢! 見我兒 婦耶? 諸賢! 見我兒 婦耶? 那利鴦伽! 以此事故可知, 若愛生時, 便生愁慼 啼哭 憂苦 煩惋 懊惱 Even though there is a difference how the discussion began between the Buddha and the counterpart, the the contents are same both in the Pali and Chinese. 49 W.Rahula,What The Buddha Taught, p.45 50 MLDB. translates taṇhā as craving : p.29,n.6, 138, 195;MLS.I.133 51 W.Rahula, op.cit. 52 Ibid. 20
canon, discourses that trace to craving as the cause of suffering. On the other hand, according to the twelvefold theory of causal condition, ignorance is placed as the first cause of suffering. As the texts describe, the nature of the individual s reactions to the environment, and the conditioning which promotes continued becoming, usually stem from ignorance, which is said to have no known beginning. 53 Further, it is mentioned that ignorance is correlated with volitional activities 54 and that when there is no ignorance there are no volitional activities and that with the cessation of ignorance there is a cessation of volitional activities. 55 And also, it is mentioned that when it is asked what is the causal condition (upanisā- 緣 ) of volitional activities, the reply should be ignorance. 56 The fact that making no reference to avijjā in the Dhammacakkappavattanasutta (in the second noble truth) and the indications to ignorance in some other suttas 57 as the head of causes conducive to samsāric existence, have led modern Buddhist scholars to form two theories for origin of suffering: 1. Taṇhā as the sole cause of suffering 2. Avijjā as the cause of suffering. Erich Frauwallner has tried to show a development in the Pāli suttapiṭaka as to the cause of suffering. According to him, the Dhammacakkappavattanasutta establishes taṇhā as the sole cause of suffering and later through the theory of causal condition (paṭiccasamuppāda- 緣起法 ), ignorance (avijjā) was introduced as the cause functioning together with other conditions to generate suffering. 58 As the suttapitaka reflects, there is no space to form a theory of a single cause as the origin of suffering. It is stated that there is no known first beginning (purimākoṭi- 前際 ) of ignorance 59 and it is said that the causal formula beginning with ignorance is an effort of describing 53 SN.II.178; AN.V.113 54 SN.II.7: avijjāya kho sati sankhārā honti avijjā paccayā sankhārā 55 SN.II.9: avijjāya kho asati sankhārā na honti avijjānirodhā sankhāranirodho 56 SN.II.31 57 SN.II.6, 9, 12; It 34:yā kāc imā duggatiyo asmiṁ loke paramhi ca avijjāmūlakā sabbā icchā -- lobha -- sammussayā; Sn 199, 277, 729:jāti -- maraṇa -- samsāraṁ ye vajanti punappunaṁ... avijjāy eva sā gati 58 E.Frauwallner, History of Indian Philosophy, Vol. I. pp.150-156sq; H.G.A. van Ziet, Avijja in Encyclopaedia of Buddhism, p.548 : he mentions of few scholars who tried to interpret ignorance as the dominant cause of suffering in Buddhism. 59 AN.V.113 21
phenomena in terms of causally correlated factors in the middle instead of seeking for initial or final causes. 60 The Sammādiṭṭhisutta states: With the arising of the taints there is the arising of ignorance. With the cessation of the taints there is the cessation of the taints..with the arising of ignorance there is the arising of the taints. With the cessation of ignorance there is the cessation of the taints. 61 This is a well-illustrious mark to show that the Pāli suttapiṭaka has not considered ignorance as the fundamental cause of suffering but only as one of many factors which are causally conditioned. 62 With regard to the hypothesis presented by Frauwallner, Buddhist researchers have given consideration and have shown that it is groundless. However, they have tried to see a relationship between taṇhā and avijja as follows: Some fifty years ago Erich Frauwallner highlighted the fact that at one time (in the formula of the four noble truths) Buddhist thought sees thirst (tṛṣṇā/taṅhā) as the root cause of suffering, at another time (in the formula of pratityasamutpada) ignorance (avidya/avijja); indeed, he saw this as something of an inconsistency. Yet what Buddhist thought seems to be suggesting here is that what is logically distinct-the cognitive and affective, fact and value-is empirically inextricably bound up together: a mind that does not see in accordance with the truth is a mind that tends to grasp. 63 When we examine the way how some suttas have discussed the problem of suffering, it seems that what Frauwallner has pointed out is partially acceptable. In the overall understanding, Buddhism does not accept a single cause as the root of suffering but a correlative mixture of causes and conditions. However, the Buddha has not followed a fixed theory in presenting his teaching and certain discourses were given by him 60 MN.I.265;SN.II.20,21 61 MLDB.p.143f ; T2,797b: 彼云何名為無明? 所謂不知苦 不知習 不知盡 不知道 此名為無明 The Chinese version differs from the Pāli. 62 P.Williams and A.Tribe, Buddhist Thought,p.46 63 R. Gethin, Wrong View (micchā-diṭṭhi) and Right View (sammā-diṭṭhi) in the Theravada Abhidhamma in Recent Researches in Buddhist Studies Essays in Honour of Professor Y.Karunadasa,p.221 22
according to the listener s capacity and interest. So, we can see that some discourses in showing why suffering arises, have referred to craving (taṇhā) as the cause of lot of issues confronted by unenlightened persons. For instance, in the Mūlapariyāyasutta 想經, 64 a deep philosophical scripture, after analyzing elements related to existence, express that delight in them is the cause of suffering (nandi dukkhassa mūlaṁ). 65 A close reading into the suttapitaka, showing that though there is an obvious shortage referring to avijjā as the sole cause, there are number of discourses which talk only of taṇhā as the root of suffering. Thus, we can recognize a line of thought emphasized craving as the cause of suffering. Even we cannot agree with Frauwallner s opinion completely, his view causes us to look closer into the texts. 2.3. The Characteristics of the Mahādukkhakkhandhasutta 苦蘊經 The main theme of this discourse is the truth of suffering and the origin of suffering. In the suttapiṭaka, there are number of suttas dealing with the four noble truths in different ways. A characteristic seen in the suttapiṭaka is that each discourse has its own characteristic and an independent discussion related to the mainstream thought. 66 As we have noted above, we can recognize some characteristics common to these discourses. The discourses concerned with the concept of suffering have functioned in two ways, definitive and descriptive. And, certain discourses in explaining the cause of suffering have inclined to trace to taṇhā as the cause of origin. In this section, I am going to point out that the Mahādukkhandhasutta belongs to the category of suttas that offer descriptive approach to explain the concept of suffering and it is based on the idea that suffering is resulted in from desire (taṇhā). 64 MN.I.1-6;T1,596b~596c 65 MN.I.6; This reference is not found in the Chinese version of this sutta. 66 R. Gethin, The Foundations of Buddhism, p.47: The Discourses of the Buddha as preserved in the Nikayas do not of themselves constitute a systematic exposition of Buddhist thought with a beginning, middle, and end. Each discourse is rather presented as a more or less self-contained piece on a particular theme. And yet, the discourses as a whole do contain quite explicit indications of how these various themes relate to each other and fit together to form and overall structure and pattern. 23
2.3.1. Mahādukkhakkhandhasutta: a detailed account As we previously noted, the redactors of the suttapiṭaka and later scholars (like Buddhaghosa) have attempted to present a more detailed description on the teaching of suffering. The Buddha himself accepted that the teaching of suffering is a so deep concept that people find it difficult to understand. 67 So, it was necessary to apply different teaching methods to convince the general public of his message. In an attempt to realize what is suffering and how it puts us in its sway, we have to have a deep knowledge regarding every aspect related to it. In this case, it was necessary to use descriptive method to present the idea needed to teach. The effort of producing detailed account on suffering-dukkha is clearly seen in the Mahādukkhandhasutta 苦蘊經. The discussion in this discourse concerned with suffering is mainly centred upon the dukkha and dukkhasamudaya two truths. In order to educate the public of suffering, the text has selected three factors, which are very sensitive to deal and play a great role in human life. They are: i. sensuality (kāma- 欲望 / 婬 ) ii. material form (rūpa- 色 ) iii. feeling (vedanā- 痛 / 覺 ) 68 To illustrate these three factors in relation to suffering and its arising, the text uses three angles to look at as gratification (assāda- 氣味 / 味 ), danger (ādīnava- 敗壞 / 患 / 過 ), and escape from them (nissaraṇa- 棄 / 出要 / 捨離 ). 69 Let us take one by one the three items and examine how far they have been described in comparison to the definitive suttas. 67 SN.V.430:Idaṁ ariya saccanti bhikkhave mayā paññattaṁ. tattha aparimānā vaṇṇā aparimānā vyañjanā aprimānā samkāsanā itipidam dukkhaṁ ariya saccanti 68 MN.I.84 69 Ibid.85 24
2.3.1.1. Sensuality (kāmā- 欲望 / 婬 ) In this sutta, sensuality has been analyzed in terms of gratification, danger and escape. The discourses defining what is craving, the cause of suffering, briefly mention craving for sensual pleasures (kāmataṇhā- 欲愛 ), craving for continuous existence (bhavataṇhā- 有愛 ), and craving for annihilation (vibhavataṇhā- 無有愛 ) as three modes of craving. 70 The Mahādukkhakkhandhasutta 苦蘊經 puts sensuality (kāmā) as the first topic to examine and first defines what is the gratification of sensuality. Neither in the Dhammacakkappavattanasutta nor in the Saccavibhangasutta, there is reference to the definition of sensual gratification. 71 The Mahādukkhakkhandhasutta 苦蘊經 defines (and also some other suttas) the gratification of sensual pleasures in terms of five codes of sense pleasures (pañcakāmaguṇa- 妙欲 / 五欲 ) as follows: What is the gratification in the case of sensual pleasure?...there are these five codes of sensual pleasure. What are the five? Forms cognizable by the eye that is wished for, desired, agreeable and likeable, connected with sensual desire, and provocative of lust. Sounds cognizable by the ear Odours cognizable by the nose Flavours cognizable by the tongue Tangibles cognizable by the body that are wished for, desired, agreeable and likeable connected with sensual desire, and provocative of lust. These are the five codes of sensual pleasure the pleasure and joy that arise dependent on these five codes of sensual pleasure are the gratification in the case of sensual pleasures. 72 When we compare this description with the definitive discourses dealing with the second noble truth, which merely mentions sensual desire (kāmataṇhā- 欲愛 ) as one aspect of craving, the descriptive definition as to gratification given here can be understood as 70 Vin.I.10f; MN.III.250f; SN.V.431 71 Ibid. 72 MN.I.85,92,144,155,173,454,504;II.42;III.114,295;DN.I.245: Koca bhikkhave kāmanāṁ assādo: Pañc ime bhikkhave kāmaguṇā, katame pañca:cakkhuviññeyyā rūpā iṭṭhā kantā manāpā, piyarūpā kāmūpasamhitā rajaniyā,sotaviññeyyā saddā-pe-ghāṇaviññeyyā gandhā-jivhāviññeyyā rasā-kāyaviññeyyā poṭṭhabbā.ime kho bhikkhave pañcakāmaguṇā. Yam kho bhikkhave ime pañcakāmaguṇe paṭicca uppajjati sukhaṁ somanassaṁ, ayaṁ kāmānaṁ assādo; T2, 605a (EA): 欲有何味? 所謂五欲者是 云何為五? 眼見色, 為起眼識 ; 甚愛敬念, 世人所喜 若耳聞聲 鼻嗅香 舌知味 身知細滑, 甚愛敬念, 世人所喜 若復於此五欲之中起苦 樂心, 是謂欲味 25