《歐美研究》第卷第期 $民國年月$，1-

Size: px

Start display at page:

Download "《歐美研究》第卷第期 $民國年月$，1-"

庄宗政
5 years ago
Views:

1 * 0 rueylin@mail.scu.edu.tw * NSC H

2 126 conceptual knowledge operational knowledge 1 scientific concepts place force inertia energy electromagnetic field phlogiston oxygenation CO 2 gene species cell natural kinds dissipative tunneling effect photo-electric effect superconducting phenomena computer virus 1

3 127 electron neutron positron true reality scientific realism epicycle phlogiston referent 2 2 elementary particles super-string theory

4 128 [approximate] [verisimilitude] anti-realism 3 Thomas Kuhn Paul Feyerabend meaning change meaning incommensurability reference scientific terms 3

5 129 4 index taxonomy the causal theory of reference 5 the causal theory of reference projection 4 Ian Hacking Kuhn, 1993: Fu, , 2001; Chen, 2000 Fu, 1993, 1996

6 130 realized object referentiality empirical projectibility Goodman, 1965 theory of empirical projection classificatory system conceptual network T1 realizable models T2 linking types projective types

7 131 T4 T5 projecting of a scientific term onto theories theoretical terms theoretical entities [George Berkeley] [David Hume] 6 6 Ramsey sentence 1985

8 132 7 Hansen, 1965 Maxwell, theory-laden of observation 9 Maxwell, 1989: Carnap, 1966: see as object perception fact perception Drestke 1999:

9 133 Imre Lakatos, Larry Laudan, etc. Kripke, 1980 the causal chain theory of reference rigid designator Putnam, 1975a, 1975b; Kitcher, 1978, 1993; Newton-Smith, 1981; Boyd, 1979, 1990, 1992; Hardin & Rosenberg, 1982; Psillos 1999 proper name possible world identifying type token

10 134 Hilary Putnam Philip Kitcher Statihis Psillos causal descriptive theory of reference The Meaning of Meaning Putnam, 1975a twin earth 12 H 2 O necessary 12 The Twin Earth Chronicles: Twenty Years of Reflection on Hilary Putnam s The Meaning of Meaning, edited by Andrew Pessin & Sanford Goldberg, New York: M. E. Sharpe Press, 1996

11 135 H 2 O H 2 O H 2 O referent fixed H 2 O essence H 2 O H 2 O Explanation and Reference Putnam, 1975b electricity Benjamin Franklin intension

12 136 Putnam, 1975b: 200 C D Kitcher, 1978, 1993 principles

13 137 Joseph Priestley calx of mercury [HgO] dephlogisticated air Antoine Laurent Lavoisier oxygen 13 O 2 Georg Ernst Stahl 13 The Structure of Scientific Revolution Kuhn, 1970

14 138 the new species of air nitrous to be so much dephlogisticated Kitcher, 1978: token 1978: : : type-token

15 139 Psillos, 1999: 281 the natural-kind taxonomies of newer theories 1999: 280 [physical magnitude term] the view of God s eyes metaphysical realism

16 140 Psillos, 1999: internal structure H 2 O theoretical description manifest properties 15 HO 2 kind-constitutive properties 1999: causal role

17 141 refer to nothing 1999: core causal description causal-explanation description luminiferous ether 16 David K. Lewis ex: Enç, 1976; Hardin & Rosenberg, 1982

18 : 296 Dupré, 1981 Kuhn,

19 the view of God s eyes omniscient view

20 144 re-present re-construct 17 17

21 145 taxonomic realism 18 biological classification diagnostic features privileged sameness relation Dupré, 1981: taxa Dupré, 1981: 73 phenetic taxonomy cladist taxonomy Dupré, : 108 DNA

22 146 Kuhn, 1983: 679 H 2 O : 109 wholesale 20 Reason, Truth, and History internal realism within a theory or description Putnam, 1981: : 116 Post-Darwinian Kantian ch. 5

23 : : identify Hardin & Rosenberg 1982 Psillos deferent epicycle instrumentalism

24 148 Stephen P. Stich Michael A. Bishop The flight to reference Bishop & Stich, 1996: 48 reference kinematics]

25 149 reference framework reference coordinate system stand for Philip Percival 2000: designating 3 denotation

26 150

27 underdetermination of theory by evidence Testing through Model and Tests of a Theory Version

28 photo-electric effect superconducting phenomena computer virus centripetal force quantum quark black hole force field species 1 2 magnitude 3 effect atomic scattering 4 coefficient of friction Planck s constant Psillos, 1999: 280 Hacking, 1993

29 153 entities 1 2 scientific terms mental content 27 Paul Thagard categorization deductive inference explanation problem solving 27 combining concepts conceptual integration Fodor 1998

30 154 generalization analogical inference Thagard, 1992: 22 mental entities category mental representation conceptual representation Palmer Smith and Medin 1981 Neisser 1987, Mechelem, et. al category Estes 1994 Estes pp. 4-5 secondary substance] Estes 30 Thagard unnatural entities Fodor, Chomsky, Minsky, Rosch, Kant, Locke Rumelhart emergent state Skinner fiction Thagard, 1992: 18 Thagard

31 155 language-like 31 general terms intensive meaning categories kinds emergent 32 Palmer, 1978: image mental model Johnson-Laird classicism connectionism Tweney 1992 ; Nowak & Thagard 1992 ; Freedman Thagard frame schemata WordNet

32 156 node integration Thagard, 1992: 21 Komatsu 1992 similarity-based view schema view explanation-based view exemplar theory theory theories dual theory Mechelen conceptual integration, or blending mental modeling Fauconnier and Turner Thagard words

33 157 empirical projectibility Blackburn, 1984, Goodman, 1965 theory of projection Hacking, 1992, theory of confirmation 36 Chappell 1998 Sainsbury Fauconnier and Turner 1998: 134 frame analogical mapping reference point categorization

34 158 inductive generalization confirming instance green A Goodman, 1965: grue B A B projectibility valid projection 1965: ch.4

35 mapping or function a b a projects onto b 39 prediction regularity Rubinstein, 1998: 43 antecedent act expect projector Goodman, 1965: 83

36 160 intentionality of the mind a b intentional state a motivate b projective combination b commit

37 confirmability pure fiction simple combination

38 162 fiction fantasy requirements Johannes Kepler Mysterium Cosmographium

39 163 pattern H 2 O

40 164 theoretical projection network projection singularities x event horizon Davies 1993: 25-30,

41 165 categorical and taxonomic system

42 166 theoretical concept classification organization pattern categorization taxonomy elementary categories secondary categories 43 hierarchy 1999 heat physics heat temperature temperature scale 43 theory version Heinrich Rudolf Hertz Chen, 2000

43 167 quantity of heat 44 specific heat capacity c 2 1 heat current k 2 1 k thermal conductivity Joseph Black, intensity 45

44 168 1 calorimetry classical thermodynamics 2 2

45 169 1 a b c d

46 170 a b c d e f Nersessian, 1989 Thagard, 1992 rule links property links kind links part links instance

47 171 internal energy 2 1 ideal gas 1 2 n n mole numbers universal gas constant adiabatic isochoric isothermal isobaric 47 completely reversible heat engines 47 p = constant

48 172 Otto Circle Diesel Circle Carnot circle Brayton Circle p V-phase figure Lea & Burke internal-combustion engines

49 173 realization near-isomorphic 50 physical magnitude function 50 Usher 1982:

50 Testing through Model and Tests of a Theory Version

51 175 calorie thermal fluid 52 52, Dampier 1966

52 176 calorie -metry theory of calorie 4

53 Robert Boyle vibratory agitation

54 ad hoc hypothesis

56 180 directly refer to indirectly

57 181 Representing and Intervening ch. 9 Brownian motion photoelectric effect background radiation 56 meaningless phenomena 56 Hacking, 1983: 158

58 182 Robert Brown A. C. Becquerel electrovoltaic cell

59 183

62 186

63 H 2 O , 2: : Bishop, M. & Stich, S The flight into reference or how not to make progress in the philosophy of science. Philosophy of Science, 63, 1: Blackburn, S Spreading the word. Oxford: Clarendon Press. Blackburn, S Morals and modals. In G. MacDonal & C. Wright Eds. Fact, science, and morality: Essays on A. J. Ayer s language, truth and logic pp Oxford: Basil Blackwell Press. Boyd, R Metaphor and theory change: What is metaphor a metaphor for? In A. Ortony Ed. Metaphor and thought pp Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Boyd, R Realism, conventionality, and realism about. In G. Boolos Ed. Meaning and method pp Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Boyd, R Constructivism, reralism, and philosophical method. In J. Earman Ed. Inference, explanation, and other frustrations pp Berkeley: University of California

64 188 Press. Carnap, R Philosophical foundations of physics. New York: Basic Books, Inc. Chappell, T. D. J The incomplete projectivist: How to be an objectivist and an attitudinist. The Philosophical Quarterly, 48, 190: Chen, Ruey-Lin Theory versions instead of articulations of a paradigm. Studies in History and Philosophy of Science, 31A, 3: Dampier, W. C A history of science. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Davies, P Ed. The new physics. Cambridge University Press. Drestke, F Perception. The Cambridge dictionary of philosophy 2nd Ed. pp Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Dupré, J Natural kinds and biological taxa. The Philospphical Review, 90, 1 January : Dupré, J The philosophical basis of biological classification Essay Review Studies in History and Philosophy of Science, 25, 2: Enç, B Reference of theoretical terms. Nous 10 pp Estes, W. K Classification and cognition. Oxford: Oxford University; Clarendon Press. Fauconnier, G., & Turner, M Conceptual integration networks. Cognitive Science, 22, 2: Fodor, J Concept: Why cognitive science went wrong. Oxford: Clarendon Press. Freedman, E. G Understanding scientific controversies from a computational perspective: The case of latent learning. In Giere Ed. Cognitive models of science pp Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press. Fu, D Problem domain, taxonomy, and comparativity in histories of science with a case study in the comparative

65 189 history of Optics. In C. H. Lin, & D. Fu Eds. Philosophy and conceptual history of science in Taiwan pp Dordrecht: Kluwer Academic Publishers. Fu, D Higher taxonomy and higher incommensurability. Studies in History and Philosophy of Science, 26, 2: Fu, D Crossing taxonomies and boundaries: a critical note on comparative history of science and Zhao Youqin s Optics. Taiwanese Journal for Philosophy and History of Science, 5, 1: Goodman, N Fact, fiction, and forecast. Indianapolis: The Bobbs-Merrill Company, Inc. Press. Original work published Hacking, I Representing and intervening. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Hacking, I World-making by kind-making: child abuse for example. In M. Douglas, & H. David Eds. How classification works pp Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press. Hacking, I Working in a new world: the taxonomic solution. In H. Paul Ed. World changes pp Massachuetts: The MIT Press. Hansen, N. R Patterns of discovery. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press Original work published 1958 Hardin, C. & Rosenberg, A A defense of convergent realism. Philosophy of Science, 49: Johnson-Laird, P. N Mental model. Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press. Komatsu, L. K Recent views of conceptual structure. Psychological Bulletin, 112, 3: Kitcher, P Theories, theorists and theoretical change. The Philosophical Review, 87, 4 October : Kitcher, P The advancement of science. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Kripke, S Naming and necessity. Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press.

66 190 Kuhn, T The structure of scientific revolution. Chicago: The University of Chicago Press Original work published 1962 Kuhn, T Commensurability, comparability, communicability. In P. D. Asquith, & T. Nickles Eds. PSA 1982 proceedings of the 1982 Biennial meeting of the Philosophy of Science Association pp East Lansing: Philosophy of Science Association. Kuhn, T Afterwords. In P. Horwich Ed. World changes pp Massachuetts: The MIT Press. Lea, S. M., & Burke, J. R Physics: The nature of things. New York: Brooks/Cole Publishing Company & West Publishing Company. Maxwell, G The ontological status of theoretical entities. In Readings in the philosophy of science. New Jersey: Prentice Hall, Englewood Cliffs. Original work published 1962 Mechelem, I. V., Hampton, J., Michalski, R. S., & Theuns, P Categories and concepts: Theoretical views and inductive data analysis. London: Academic Press. Neisser, U Concepts and conceptual development: Ecological and intellectual factors in categorization. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Nersessian, N. J Conceptual change in science and in science education. Syntheses, 80: Newton-Smith, W. H The rationality of science. London: Routledge Press. Nowak, G., & Thagard, P Copernicus, ptolemy, and explanatory coherence. In Giere Ed. Cognitive models of science pp Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press. Palmer, S. E Fundamental aspects of cognitive representation. In E. Rosch & B. Lloyd Eds. Cognition and categorization pp Hillsdale, New Jersey: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, Publishers. Percival, P Theoretical terms: meaning and reference. In

67 191 Newton-Smith Ed. A companion to the philosophy of science pp Oxford: Blackwell Publisher. Putnam, H. 1975a The meaning of meaning. In Mind, language and reality pp Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Putnam, H. 1975b Explanation and reference. In Mind, language and reality pp Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Putnam, H Reason, truth, and history. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Psillos, S Scientific realism: How science tracks truth. London: Routledge Press. Rubinstein, A Induction, grue emeralds and lady Macbeth s fallacy. The Philosophical Quarterly, 48, 190: Smith, E. E. & Medin, D. L Categories and concepts. Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press. Sainbury, R. M Projections and relations. The Monist, 81, 1: Thagard, P Conceptual revolutions. Princeton, New Jersey: Princeton University Press. Tweney, R. D Serial and parallel processing in scientific discovery. In R. Giere Ed. Cognitive models of science pp Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press. Usher, A. P A history of mechanical inventions Rev. ed. New York: Dover Publications, Inc. Original work published 1929

68 192 Reference and Projection of Scientific Concepts Ruey-Lin Chen Abstract What is the relation between scientific terms scientific concepts and the world? In this article I argue that the several versions of causal theory of reference fail to provide a good answer to this question. As the notion of reference is presupposed, the versions encounter some unsolvable difficulties. But there is a better approach along the notion of projection. I claim that some degree of correlation between scientific terms or concepts and the world can be established through projection. This article proposes and develops an Empirical Projection Theory EPT for scientific concepts. The theory exhibits an essential characteristic of the scientific concept: empirical projectibility. EPT claims the following theses. 1 Scientific concepts can be projected onto the world by the mind and confirmed by constructing realizable models. 2 Each scientific concept is a part of a conceptual network that is constituted by a classificatory system. 3 The correlation between each scientific concept and phenomena depends on the concept s topological location or the way it is linked to the other concepts. 4 When the object projected by a scientific concept is confirmed or realized, the scientific concept and its correspondent scientific term refers to the realized object. 5 The same scientific term occurring in different scientific theories would then correspond to different scientific concepts. Some scientific cases, such as carloimetry, thermodynamics, and phlogiston theory, are taken as examples to justify EPT in this article. Key Words: scientific realism, the causal theory of reference, projection, scientific concepts, philosophy of science

<4D6963726F736F667420576F7264202D20A16DACECBEC7ADB2A952AABAB5B2BA63A16EA4A7ABE1A15DB0EAACECB77CAAA9A15E2E646F63>

<4D6963726F736F667420576F7264202D20A16DACECBEC7ADB2A952AABAB5B2BA63A16EA4A7ABE1A15DB0EAACECB77CAAA9A15E2E646F63> 科學革命的結構之後陳瑞麟東吳大學哲學系本文發表於 2001 年傅大為朱元鴻主編, 孔恩 : 評論集 ( 台北 : 巨流 ), 頁 279-309 1 科學革命的結構之後 1983 年孔恩發表了可共量性可比較性可溝通性 (Commensurability, Comparability,

《歐美研究》第卷第期 \(民國年月\)，1-

《歐美研究》第卷第期 \(民國年月\)，1-