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111 nagas serpent deity 5 Naga 6 5. Tai Culture Wolfram Eberhard, The Local Cultures of South and East China, pp. 229 50. David Holm David Holm, Recalling Lost Souls: The Baeu Rodo Scriptures Tai Cosmogonic Texts from Guangxi in Southern China, pp. 99 100. 6. 46 Lowell W. Bloss, The Buddha and the Naga: A Study in Buddhist Folk Religiosity, History of Religions 13(1): 36 53.

112 7 8 Valerie Hansen 9 10 7. S. J. Tambiah, World Conqueror and World Renouncer, chapter 6, 7, pp. 73 131; Lorraine Gesick, Introduction, in Centers, Symbols, and Hierarchies: Essays on the Classical States of Southeast Asia, pp. 1 8; Nicola Tannenbaum and Cornelia Ann Kammerer, Introduction, in Founders Cults in Southeast Asia: Ancestors, Polity, and Identity, pp. 1 14; Richard A. O Connor, Cultural Notes on Trade and The Tai, in Susan D. Russell, ed., Ritual, Power, and Economy: Upland- Lowland Contrasts in Mainland Southeast Asia, pp. 27 66; Paul Wheatley, Nagara and Commandery: Origins of the Southeast Asian Urban Traditions. 8. 41 60 9. Valerie Hansen, Changing Gods in Medieval China, 1127 1276. 10. Glen Dudbridge, Religious Experience and Lay Society in T ang China, chapter 7 Edward Schafer, The Divine Woman: Dragon Laadies and Rain Maidens in T ang Literature. Marianne Bujard

113 11 12 grassroots Joseph F. Rock Naga Bon Bonpo 13 11. Paul R. Katz, Demon Hordes and Burning Boats: The Cult of Marshal Wen in Late Imperial Chekiang; (Andreas Berndt), The Cult of the Longwang: Their Origin, Spread, and Regional Significance, Philip Clart 61 94 12. Jeffrey Snyder-Reinke, Dry Spells: State Rainmaking and Local Governance in Late Imperial China. 13. C. F. Mckhan Mckhan Joseph Rock C.

114 territory canonization 14 15 F. Mckhann 49 75 91 113 14. 3(2): 25 36 4(2): 1 36 15. 160 61

115 16 16. James Watson, Standardizing the Gods: The Promotion of Ti en Hou ( Empress of Heaven ) Along the South China Coast, 960 1960, in David Johnson, Andrew J. Nathan, Evelyn S. Rawski, eds., Popular Culture in Late Imperial China, pp. 292 324. 335 53 1(2): 1 20 Michael Szonyi, The Illusion of Standardizing the Gods, the Cult of the Five Emperors in Late Imperial China, Journal of Asian Studies 56(1): 113 35 Making Claims about Standardization and Orthopraxy in Late Imperial China: Rituals and Cults in the Fuzhou Region in Light of Watson s Theories, Modern China 33(1): 47 71. 6(1 2

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149 [1420] 2002 1354 1444 [1563] 2007 1497 1580 4 [1694] 1988 1974 1993 2009 [1549] 1998 1488 1559 1 [1577] 2003 21 [1060] 1975 1007 1072 998 1061 [1625] 1991 1555 1626 [1810] 1969 11 [1846] 1992 1988 [1587] 1983 2003

150 [945] 1975 887 946 2009 179 81 1996 1985 63 65 2000 1967 2005 2009 136 82 C. F. Mckhann [1992] 1998 91 113 Joseph Rock [1951] 1998 49 75 David Faure 2008 6 1 2 David Faure 2003 1(2): 1 20 2003 Marianne Bujard 2002

151 2005 3(2): 25 56 2006 4(2): 1 36 2009 163:17 70 2010 371 90 2001 1975 Andreas Berndt 2012 The Cult of the Longwang: Their Origin, Spread and Regional Significance Philip Clart 61 94 1986 1994 2009 160 61 2005 335 53 Bloss, Lowell W. 1973. The Buddha and the Naga: A Study in Buddhist Folk Religiosity. History of Religions 13(1): 36 53. Dudbridge, Glen. 1995. Religious Experience and Lay Society in T ang China: A Reading of Tai Fu s Kuang-i chi. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Eberhard, Wolfram. 1968. The Local Cultures of South and East China. Leiden: Brill. Gesick, Lorraine. 1983. Introduction. In Centers, Symbols, and Hierarchies: Essays on the Classical States of Southeast Asia. Edited

152 by Lorraine Gesick. Monograph Series No. 26. New Haven, CT: Yale University Southeast Asia Studies, 1 18. Hansen, Valerie. 1990. Changing Gods in Medieval China, 1127 1276. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press. Holm, David. 2004. Recalling Lost Souls: The Baeu Rodo Scriptures Tai Cosmogonic Texts from Guangxi in Southern China. Bangkok: White Lotus Co. Ltd. Katz, Paul R. 1995. Demon Hordes and Burning Boats: The Cult of Marshal Wen in Late Imperial Chekiang. Albany: State University of New York Press. Lian Ruizhi. 2012. Surviving Conquest in Dali: Chiefs, Deities and Ancestors. In Chieftains into Ancestors: Imperial Expansion and Indigenous Society in Southwest China. Edited by David Faure and Ho Ts ui-p ing. Vancouver: UBC Press, 86 110. O Connor, Richard. 1989. Cultural Notes on Trade and The Tai. In Ritual, Power, and Economy: Upland-Lowland Contrasts in Mainland Southeast Asia. Monograph Series Occasional Paper No. 14. Edited by Susan D. Russell. DeKalb, IL: Center for Southeast Asian Studies, Northern Illinois University, 27 66. Schafer, Edward. 1973. The Divine Woman: Dragon Ladies and Rain Maidens in T ang Literature. Berkeley: University of California Press. Snyder-Reinke, Jeffrey. 2009. Dry Spells: State Rainmaking and Local Governance in Late Imperial China. Cambridge: Har vard University Press. Szonyi, Michael. 1997. The Illusion of Standardizing the Gods, the Cult of the Five Emperors in Late Imperial China. Journal of Asian Studies 56(1): 113 35.. 2007. Making Claims about Standardization and Orthopraxy in Late Imperial China: Rituals and Cults in the Fuzhou Region in Light of Watson s Theories. Modern China

153 33(1): 47 71. Tambiah, S. J. 1976. World Conqueror and World Renouncer. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Tannenbaum, Nicola, and Cornelia A nn Kammerer. 2003. Introduction. In Founders Cults in Southeast Asia: Ancestors, Polity, and Identity. Edited by Nicola Tannenbaum and Cornelia Ann Kammerer. Monograph Series No. 52. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 1 14. Watson, James. 1985. Standardizing the Gods: The Promotion of Ti en Hou ( Empress of Heaven ) Along the South China Coast, 960 1960. In Popular Culture in Late Imperial China. Edited by David Johnson, Andrew J. Nathan, and Evelyn S. Rawski. Berkeley: University of California Press, 292 324. Wheatley, Paul. 1983. Nagara and Commandery: Origins of Southeast Asian Unban Traditions. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.

154 Spirits, Dragon Kings and State Cult: An Examination of Religion and Local Society in Dali, Yunnan Abstract: This paper, by analyzing the processes by which indigenous spirits were transformed into ritually orthodox guardians, examines on how religious life in late imperial Dali (Yunnan) ended up being reconstructed due to the impact of ethnic politics. During the Ming dynasty, local spirits of various origins became worshipped as guardian deities of the Buddhist religion and subsequently incorporated into the state cult. By analyzing four such cults located in the southern area of the Dali plain (a water spirit, the Blue Dragon Goddess, the ancient hero Duan Chicheng, and the Tang general Lee Mi ), this paper considers the historical processes by which they were converted into Dragon Kings ( nagas ) by Buddhist monks as well as state cult deities. At the same time, however, this paper also examines how different groups of Dali people (including indigenous ritual clans, native soldiers, Han military forces, and local officials) competed to have their spirits recognized as a means of legitimizing their status and influence in local society. By highlighting the processes of agency through which ritual orthodoxy could be defined, this paper demonstrates that the historical development of these four cults can help shed new light on local strategies of negotiation and social mobility, all of which contributed to the development of Dali s vibrant religious life. Key words: spirits, Dragon Kings, state cult, Dali, local society.