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1 1.1 language contact phenomena code-mixing code-switching lexical borrowing 1

2 2

3 Ferguson Statistics Singapore, Statistics: Time Series on Population (Mid-Year Estimates). Online. Singapore: Singapore Government. Available from: [23 April 2011] 3

4 diglossia without bilingualism 4

5 Xu Daming et al Tay 1989 Code-Switching and Code- Mixing as a Communicative Strategy in Multilingual Discourse 5

6 Tan 1988 A Description of Patterns of Code-Mixing and Code- Switching in a Multilingual Household Lee 2003 Motivations of Code-Switching in Multilingual Singapore Lee 2003 Anne Pakir 1989 Kamwangamalu & Lee 1991 Chinese-English Code-Mixing: A Case of Matrix Language Assignment matrix language Lee Chen 1991 A Study of Code-Switching and Borrowing Children in Singapore Toh Meow Tin 1989 Code-switching and Code-mixing Among Peers: A Study 6

7 of Multilingual Discourse Geraldine Davi Lefort 1993 The Relationship Between Perceptions of Language Status and Identity and Code- Switching Patterns among Singaporean English-Tamil Bilinguals Ku Geok Boon 1993 A Study of Code-Switching Behaviour of Two Single-Sex Group Geraldine Yeo Su Min 1993 Code-Switching in Local Creative Works and its Implications on Characterization 7

8 2.1 code creole pidgin standard language 1990 code switching Poplack 1980 Myers-Scotton 1992 Grosjean & Miller 1994 Milroy & Muysken 1995 base language guest language code mixing Bokamba 1989 Muysken 2000 language contact 8

9 Bokamba 1989 Clyne 2000 Genessee 2000 Tay 1989 intra-sentential switching intersentential switching Scotton 1988 Sridhar & Sridhar 1980 Kachru 1978 Sridhar & Sridhar 1980 Gumperz 1982 Bokamba 1989 Tay 1989 Tay 1989 Myers-Scotton

10 Matras 2009 Torres 2007 register DeBose borrowing Pfaff 1979 Grosjean Myers- Scotton

11 Myers-Scotton 1992 Grosjean & Miller 1994 Grosjean & Miller 1994 (a) J ai vu des wild guys a cheval. wild guys (b) Je vars checker cela. check (a) (b) (a) wild guys Pfaff 1979 (b) check er Pfaff 1979 Pfaff 1979 Myers-Sctton 1992 spontaneous borrowing incorporated borrowing cultural borrowing Pfaff 1979 (c) Los estan bussing pa otra escuela. bussing bussing 11

12 nonce borrowing (d) Taipeo las cartas. type Pfaff 1979 (d) type taipeo Myers-Scotton 1992 Grosjean Pfaff 1979 Poulisse & Bongaerts

13 Coca Cola Coke loanword Myers-Scotton 1992 Grosjean bilingualism Hoffmann 1991 Grosjean 1994 Hamers & Blanc 2000 bilingual 13

14 Hoffmann 1991 Hoffmann 1991 Hoffmann 1991 balanced bilingual Bloomfield 1933 Hoffmann 1991 Macnamara 1967 Hamers & Blanc 2000 Titone 1972 Hamers & Blanc 2000 Hoffmann 1991 receptive bilingualism productive bilingualism intermediate stages Hoffmann

15 Grosjean 1998 language mode continuum Grosjean base language guest language Grosjean Grosjean

16 A LANGUAGE A : base language (MONOLINGU AL LANGUAGE MODE) (BILINGUAL LANGUAGE MODE) B LANGUAGE B guest language 2.1 language mixing A B A B 16

17 B A Grosjean A B intermediate mode B B B B A B A B A Grosjean Grosjean & Miller 1994 Grosjean 2.3 Poplack 1980 Appel & Muysken 17

18 1987 Romaine 1989 inter-sentential switching intra-sentential switching tag-switching Myers-Scotton 1989 intra-word switching Poplack 1980 Milroy & Muysken 1995 Myers- Scotton 1993 Myers-Scotton 1993: 4 (a) You know, this is a Luyia land and therefore most of the people who live in rural areas do visit this town often. Kwa hiyvo huwa san asana wanatumia Kiluyia na Kiswahili. (b) Lakini ni-ko sure ukienda after two days utaiata Uchumi supermarket kwa wingi. (a) (b) (a) (b) Muysken 2000a Matras 2009 alternational switching insertional switching 18

19 Poplack 1980 Li 2000 tag tag phrase parenthetical words Poplack 1980 emblematic switching Appel & Muysken 1987: 118 Lu 1993: 31 (c) Yeah? Appel & Muysken 1987 (c) yeah Myers-Scotton

20 2.4 speech community 2004 Fishman 1968 domain theory Fishman Fishman domain specificity Ferguson 1959 Diglossia 20

21 Fishman 1970 Fishman specific domains Fishman Greenfield 1970 Puerto Rican Fishman & Greenfield 1970 metaphorical code-switching Grumperz Blom 1972 situational codeswitching situation Grumperz Blom

22 Grumperz Blom 1972 social situation Fishman

23 Gibbons Giles 1979 speech accommodation theory convergence divergence paralinguistic Giles & Robert 1979 Giles socio-historical context communicators accommodative orientation immediate situation evaluation and future intentions intrapersonal factors intergroup factors initial orientations 23

24 sociopsychological states goals and addressee focus sociolinguistic strategies behavior and tactics labeling and attributions Gudykunst 2003 Giles Verschueren Theory of Adaptation Verschueren Verschueren 1999 making choices variability negotiability adaptability 24

25 Verschueren contextual correlates of adaptability structural objects of adaptability dynamics of adaptability salience of the adaptability

26 constraints Kachru 1978 Pfaff 1979 Poplack 1980 free morpheme constraint equivalence constraint Sridhar & Sridhar 1980 dual structure principle Di Sciullo et al government theory Belazi et al functional head constraint Sankoff & Poplack 1981 Woolford 1983 Joshi 1985 Singh 1985 Stenson Gumperz

27 we code they code Gumperz 1982 addressee specification message qualification personalization objectivization Appel & Muysken 1987 referential function Gumperz directive function expressive function phatic function metalinguistic function poetic function a strategy to 27

28 negotiate interpersonal relations 2009 Heller a 1995b Sridhar 1978 Gal 1979 Torres 1992 Nishimura 1995 Kamwangamalu

29 3.1 Lambert 1967 matched-guise experiment

30 30

31 variables # * 1 LX QX WD EDB SINGAPORE: Facts and Figures. [retrieved 17 March 2011] AsiaOne Edvantage: Fewer Foreign Students in Singapore. (11 Nov 2010) [retrieved 17 March 2011] 31

32 4 MM NT SD ST KZ GZ CX SS # 2010 * 2010 random sampling

33 LX 19 1 QX 29 2 WD 29 2 MM NT 26 4 SD 21 6 ST 21 6 KZ GZ CX SS

34 3.3 Milroy 1987 Labov 1972 observer s paradox 34

35 2000 Beebe

36 !!! 36

37

38 Du Bois et al GZ GZ 2 WD WD ; 3 MM MM 4 CX CX 5 LX LX 6 KZ KZ 7 ST ST 8 SS SS 9 NT NT 10 QX QX 11 SD SD CX

39 39

40 embedded language unbalanced bilinguals Hoffmann XY 2. WD 3. XY WD / <L2 I don t care. L2> 5. XY <L2 don t care L2> / 6. WD <L2 pass L2> 40

41 7. XY [ =] <L2 pass L2> = 0.8 = 9. WD 2 LX 19 1 QX 29 2 WD 29 2 MM

42 LX LX: = = 2. MY: 3. LX: = <L2 Singtel L2> = Singtel 4. MY: /? LX: = 6. = QX QX: <L2 PPT L2> PPT presentation 2. YQ: 3. QX: 0 4. YQ: = QX: = 0.3 <L2 distracting L2> YQ: QX: 42

43 6 distracting QX distracting TA teaching assistant QE Qualifying Exam ISM Indepent Study Module PPT powerpoint presentation PIE Pan Island Expressway CDTL Centre for Development of Teaching and Learning assignment field report pass journal literature review self evaluation field work book list basic level West Coast Clark Quay Boon Lay I don t care. 43

44 % % % % %

45 WD I don t care XY 2. WD 3. XY WD / <L2 I don t care. L2> 5. XY <L2 don t care. L2> / 6. WD <L2 pass L2> 7. XY [ =] <L2 pass L2> = 0.8 = 9. QE Qualifying Exam 7 WD WD 0.3 = <L2 QE L2> 2. XY [ =] 3. WD <Q <XX> <L2 QE L2> Q> 4. =

46 5. XY 0 =/ 6. WD 0 = WD = <L2 QE L2> 2. XY 0 / 3. WD 0.3 <L2 QE L2> QE Lee

47 discourse marker % % % % %

48 Carol et al oh well now then you know I mean so because and but or meh lor hor yalor okay 2 then 1 okay then Lee 2003 okay WD

49 1. WD <L2 QE L2> 0.3 QE Qualifying Exam, 3. XY 0 4. WD 0.6 <L2 okay= L2>! WD <L2 QE L2>? 2. XY [ ] 3. = = WD 5. XY = 6. WD 0 <L2 written L2> <L2 oral L2>? 7. XY [ =] 8. WD 0 = <L2 okay L2> okay WD then okay 1 QX distracting 49

50 GZ: <L2 check L2> = 2. LJ: [ =] 3. GZ: = 0.5 = 0.4 = <L2 check L2> 5. LJ: [ =] 6. GZ: 7. = <@@> 8. LJ: [<@@>] 9. GZ: = <L2 wireless L2> 10. LJ: 0 <XX> WD <L2 L2> 8. XY <XX> 9. WD [ = = ] <L2 QE L2> 11. <L2 L2> 12. XY [<XX>] 13. WD = 14. XY 15. WD 50

51 16. XY [ =] 17. WD 0 <L2 L2> XY [ =] pass offer proposal journal reference 4.2 Lee 2003 with motivation switching without motivation switching Myers-Scotton

52 Myers-Scotton 1993 motivation theory Fishman 1968 domain theory domain specificity Fishman Fishman 1970 specific domains domain Fishman 1970 Fishman 52

53 seminar reference theory dissertation presentation WD 53

54 WD <L2 presentation L2> 2. XY [ ] 3. WD 0 \ 0.6 <L2 seminar L2>, 4. <L2 research seminar L2> 5. XY <L2 presentation L2>? 6. WD [ = ]<XX> 7. XY <L2 present L2> 8. WD <XX> = = <XX> 12. XY = WD / 14. XY 15. WD <L2 presentation L2> 16. XY /? 17. WD <L2 presentation L2> XY = = = 19. <L2 research proposal L2> 20. WD = 21. XY 0 = 22. WD [ <L2 presentation L2>] WD presentation 54

55 presentation WD presentation PPT QX QX: <L2 PPT L2> = YQ: QX: [ ] [ ] 8. <L2 flash L2> YQ: YQ: <L2 PPT L2> <L2 PPT L2> QX: [ ] <L2 PPT L2> 17. YQ:

56 18. QX: YQ: 20. QX: YQ: <L2 animation L2> 23. QX: YQ: <L2 PPT L2> = QE Qualifying Exam ISM Independent Study Module TA teaching assistant WD WD 0.3 = <L2 QE L2> 2. XY [ =] 3. WD <Q <XX> <L2 QE L2> Q> 4. = XY 0 =/ 6. WD 0 = WD / 0.2 = <L2 ISM L2> ISM Independent Study Module 8. XY <XX> 9. WD 0 =

57 10. WD = 0.2 = <L2 ISM report L2> 12. XY 0 <XX> 13. WD 0.4 = = WD = <L2 QE L2> 2. XY 0 / 3. WD 0.3 <L2 QE L2> ISM report field work literature review book list QX field work QX: 2. YQ: 3. QX: <L2 field work L2> <XX> 4. YQ: <L2 field work L2> <@@> 5. QX: <@@> 6. YQ: <L2 field work L2> 7. QX: <@@> 8. YQ: = QX: 1.0 <L2 field work L2>

58 11. <L2 field work 12. YQ: = QX: /? 14. YQ: 15. QX: [ ] 16. YQ: <L2 arts L2> QX: = 19. YQ: <L2 arts L2> <L2 arts L2> 21. QX: = 22. YQ:

59 WD WD 0.2 (0.3) <L2 L2> 2. XY <XX> 3. WD [ = = ] <Q <L2 QE L2> Q> 6. <L2 L2> 7. XY [<XX>] 8. WD = 9. XY 10. WD 11. XY [ =] 12. WD 0 <L2 L2> XY [ =] Dreamweaver Flash Bill Gates Microsoft GY: <L2 B= L2> 2. QX: 0 <L2 Bill Gates! L2> 59

60 3. GY: <L2 Bill Gates L2> 4. QX: 5. GY: QX: 7. GY: <XX> 8. QX: 0 = 9. GY: <@@> 10. QX: = <L2 soft L2> <L2 Microsoft L2> 12. GY: = <L2 Microsoft L2> <L2 chey= L2> 13. QX: QX arts seminar PPT CDTL Dreamweaver Lee QX: 2. YQ: 3. QX: <@@> YQ: <XX> 60

61 6. QX: 0 <L2 arts L2>! 1.0 <L2 arts L2> YQ: <L2 seminar L2> 10. QX: 0 <L2 seminar L2> 11. YQ: 12. QX: YQ: [ <L2 CDTL L2>] CDTL Center for Development of Teaching and Learning 14. QX: 0.5 <L2 arts L2> 15. YQ: <L2 arts L2> 16. QX: 17. YQ: <L2 web presence L2> 18. QX: 0 <L2 web presence L2> 19. YQ: 20. QX: YQ: 22. QX: <L2 CDTL L2> 23. YQ: QX: 0 <@@> 25. YQ: <L2 outlook L2> QX: \! 28. YQ: QX: 0 \! 30. YQ: QX: YQ: 0 61

62 33. QX: 34. YQ: QX: <XX> = <L2 Dreamweaver L2> 0.3 <L2 Dreamweaver L2> 37. YQ: QX: = <L2 PPT L2> YQ: 40. QX: Verschueren

63 West Coast Plaza Boon Lay Clark Quay WD 0.3 <L2 Boon Lay L2> 2. XY 0 \= 3. WD = SF: 2. MM: 0 = SF: [<L2 West Coast L2> ] 4. MM: 5. ZJ: 0 6. MM: 0 7. SF: = 8. MM: <L2 West Coast L2> 0.3 <L2 Plaza L2> ZJ: [ ] SF: MM: QX QX Clark Quay 63

64 QX: 2. GY: = 3. QX: 0 4. GY: [ ] 5. QX: 1.0 <L2 Clark L2> 6. GY: <L2 Clark Quay! L2> 7. QX: 0 <L2 Clark Quay L2> 8. GY: <L2 Singapore River L2> 9. QX: \! 10.GY: = LX Singtel LX: = = 2. MY: 3. LX: = <L2 Singtel L2> = Singtel 4. MY: /?

65 5. LX: = 6. = t-shirt part time gram MM T t-shirt T t-shirt ZJ: <XX> 3. MM: [ <L2 t-shirt L2> ] 4. ZJ: QX QX offer motivation observation description 65

66 distracting YQ: = <XX> QX: <L2 observation L2>. 5. YQ: 0 6. QX: 7. YQ: <L2 generalisation L2> <L2 description L2>! 9. QX: /=? <@ <L2 description YQ: LX: = <L2 motivation L2> 2. <XX> 3. QX: [ ] 4. LX: 0 <L2 motivation L2> <L2 focus L2> QX: <XX> 8. LX: <L2 factor L2> 9. <L2 competence L2> 10. <L2 motivation L2> <XX> 11. QX: = 66

67 12. LX: <L2 IQ L2> 0.3 = 13. QX: 0 <L2 motivation L2> LX: = = 16. QX: = <L2 motivation L2> LX: 0 = 19. QX: 20. LX: [ ] 21. QX: = observation

68 4.3.1 Gumperz WD 0.3 = <L2 QE L2> 2. XY [ =] 3. WD <Q <XX> <L2 QE L2> Q> 4. = XY 0 =/ 6. WD 0 = QE Lee

69 WD XY 2. WD 3. XY WD / <L2 I don t care. L2> 5. XY <L2 don t care. L2> / 6. WD <L2 pass L2> 7. XY [ =] <L2 pass L2> = 0.8 = 9. QX QX: 2. YR: 0 3. QX: 4. YR: 0 5. QX: 6. YR: 0 <@@> 7. QX: = 6.0 <L2 basic level L2> 8. YR: [ =] 9. 0 = 69

70 10. QX: 0.2 <L2 intermediate L2> 11. YR: QX: <L2 intermediate level L2> YR: <@@> 16. QX: <L2 listening L2> 0.4 = 17. <L2 listening, speaking L2> YR: = 19. QX: 20. YR: = 21. QX: = 22. YR: <@@> 23. QX: <@@> 24. YR: [<@@>] 25. QX: 26. YR: 27. QX: = YR: 30. QX: 0.3 <L2 Self (0.2) Evaluation L2> <@@> 32. YR: <@@> 33. QX: <XX> <L2 presentation L2> YR: 37. QX: 70

71 38. YR: 39. QX: 40. YR: 41. QX: <L2 basic level 42. YR: 0.4 = 43. QX: Gumperz 1982 WD XY B B plus A WD 0.3 <L2 B L2> <L2 B plus L2>? 2. XY [ ] 3. <XX> 4. WD 0 = 5. XY <L2 A L2> 6. WD 0 = QX 71

72 GY Clark Quay QX: 2. GY: = 3. QX: 0 4. GY: [ ] 5. QX: 1.0 <L2 Clark L2> 6. GY: <L2 Clark Quay! L2> 7. QX: 0 <L2 Clark Quay L2> 8. GY: <L2 Singapore River L2> 9. QX: \! 10.GY: = Gumperz 1982 we code they code Giles 1979 speech convergence 72

73 WD <L2 QE L2>? QE PhD Qualifying Exam 2. XY [ ] 3. = = WD 5. XY = 6. WD 0 <L2 written L2> <L2 oral L2>? 7. XY [ =] 8. WD 0 = <L2 okay L2> WD XY okay WD 73

74 74

75 NT NT 26 4 SD 21 6 ST 21 6 KZ KZ 39 75

76 KZ CHK: <L2 tutor L2> 2. KZ: <L2 level, level tutor L2> <L2 level L2> <L2 level L2> <L2 teaching assistant L2> 4. CHK: <L2 T=A= L2> TA 5. KZ: <L2 year one L2> <L2 year two L2> <L2 teaching assistant L2>, 6. <L2 double E L2> <L2 CS L2> 7. <L2 progamming L2> double E CS 8. CHK: 9. KZ: <L2 PhD L2>, <L2 level L2> <L2 teaching assistant L2> 10. CHK: <XX>

77 Suntec Shaw Foundation House PGP Prince Georges Park Financial Accounting Mathematical Thinking What can I do? Oh my god! No wonder % % % % %

78 Oh my god! KZ ST SD Oh my god! NT KZ: / <L2 Oh my god! L2> <XX> 4. CHK: 0 5. KZ: 0 78

79 6. CHK: <XX> 7. KZ: 0.2 <L2 What can I do? L2> 8. CHK: <L2 do L2> 9. KZ: 0 <L2 okay= L2> 10. CHK: <XX> ST: 2. <XX> 3. SD: = 4. ST: 5. SD: <XX> 6. ST: <L2 Oh my god! L2> <XX> SD: ST: 2. SD: 3. ST: <L2 Why? L2> <@@> 4. SD: 5. ST: <@@> 6. SD: = 2.0 = <L2 Oh=, my=, god! L2> 8. ST: [ ] 9. SD: = 79

80 BIZ 20 Business School BIZ KZ 4 BIZ CHK: 2. KZ: 3. CHK: 0 <XX> 4. KZ: <L2 BIZ L2>, <L2 BIZ L2> <L2 alumni L2> 5. CHK: <L2 alumni L2> 6. KZ: <L2 BIZ alumni L2> <XX> 7. CHK: 8. KZ: <@@> 9. CHK: <XX> 10. KZ: <L2 alumni L2> <L2 alumni L2> CHK: 13. KZ: 14. CHK: <XX> 15. KZ: 16. CHK: 0 <L2 alumni L2> 17. KZ: <L2 alumni L2> 18. CHK: <XX> 19. KZ: <L2 registration L2> 20. <L2 registration L2> 21. CHK: <XX> 80

81 22. KZ: 0 <L2 BIZ L2> 23. CHK: KZ: <L2 registration fair L2> <L2 MPSH hall L2> MPSH 25. CHK: lecture lecturer maths mathematics module

82 % % % % % %

83 okay then but meh hor okay then meh hor meh SD meh SD: ST: SD: = ST: 0.2 = 5. <L2 B L2> 6. SD: 0 <L2 meh? L2> = 7. ST: [ <L2 B L2> ] 8. SD: 0 <L2 B L2> 9. ST: = 10. SD: = = = SD: <XX> 12. ST: = 13. SD: = 14. ST: 0.3 <L2 enjoy L2> = 15. SD: <L2 meh/? L2> 83

84 16. ST: SD: 0 = 2.0 <L2 too late L2> 18. ST: SD: <L2 enjoy L2> 20. <L2 BIZ L2> 21. ST: 22. SD: too late 19 enjoy surprise SD: 2. ST: 0 3. SD: <L2 Ex L2> 4. <L2 surprise L2> Ex Exgirlfriend 5. ST: 6. SD: 0 7. ST: 0 8. SD: <L2 very surprise L2> 9. ST: SD: 0 hor 5 hor ST 84

85 hor SD: = = \/ 4. <XX> <L2 mix and match L2> <XX> 5. ST: = <L2 hor/? L2> 6. SD: ST: <L2 SM L2> 0.2 SM 9. SD: <XX> actually purely LK: err= LK 2. KZ: <L2 purely L2> 3. LK: <@@> 4. KZ: <L2 Chinese L2> Chinese Chinese food 5. LK: <@@> <XX> 6. KZ: <@XX@>

86 8. LK: 2 purely KZ popular KZ: 2. CHK: 0 3. KZ: <L2 popular L2> 5. CHK: 6. KZ: <@ <L2 popular L2>@> CHK: 9. KZ: <L2 then L2> 10.CHK: <XX> 86

87

88 BIZ Business School MC modular credit CAP cumulative average point UE university elective module GEM general elective module KZ KZ: 0.2 <L2 GEM L2>, 2. <L2 humanity L2> 0.2 <L2 BIZ L2> 3. <L2 arts L2> <L2 BIZ L2> 4. <L2 faculty requirement L2> GEM General Elective Module 5. CHK: <XX> 6. KZ: <L2 econs L2> 7. CHK: 0 8. KZ: 0 <L2 econs L2> 9. CHK: 0 <XX> 10. KZ: <L2 UE, UE L2> <L2 business requirement L2> 1.0 <L2 UE L2> UE Unrestricted Elective 11. CHK: <XX> 12. KZ: 0 <L2 arts UE L2> 0.2 <L2 module L2> <L2 MC L2> <XX> MC Modular Credit 13. CHK: <XX> 14. KZ: <L2 module L2>

89 15. CHK: <XX> CHK: KZ: 0.2 <L2 CAP L2> 18. CHK: <L2 compromised L2> 0.4 <L2 fac L2> <XX> fac faculty, 19. KZ: <L2 CAP L2> 20. CHK: 21. KZ: <L2 CAP L2> Financial Accounting CS Computer Science Mathematical Thinking Living with Mathematics Einstein s Law of Motion Brownie Motion KZ: 0.2 <L2 physics module L2> 2. CHK: 3. KZ: <L2 Einstein s Law of Motions L2> 0.2 <L2 module L2> <L2 maths L2> <L2 Business maths L2> 4. CHK:

90 5. KZ: 0 <L2 B plus L2> 6. CHK: <L2 A L2> 7. KZ: =<L2 mid-term L2> mid-term mid-term exam 8. CHK: 0 = 9. KZ: 0.2 <L2 mid-term L2> NT: JJ: <L2 Stochastic L2> Stochastic 2. NT: = <L2 Stochastic L2> <L2 Stochastic L2> 4. JJ: 5. NT: <L2 Level=? L2> 6. JJ: 0 <L2 Five! L2> 7. NT: 0 <L2 Five L2> 8. JJ: 10. NT: 0.3 <L2 Stochastic L2> 11. <L2 Level Four L2> 12. JJ: <L2 Level Four L2> 13. NT: 14. JJ: 15. NT: 0.2 <L2 Brownie Motion! L2> 16. JJ: [<XX> ] 17. NT: <L2 David Norm L2> David Norm: 18. JJ: <XX> 19. NT: 90

91 seminar room minor in level one two year one two CCA points senior lecturer double degree group project take attendance SD: <L2 maths L2> <XX> ST: <L2 engine L2> = <XX> 4. <XX> <L2 science L2> = 5. <@ <L2 engine 6. SD: 0 7. ST: <L2 C plus L2> <L2 PP L2><XX> PP 9. SD: = 10. ST: <L2 engine L2> <L2 GE= L2>1008 <@@> GE General Elective Module 12. SD: [<@@>] 13. <XX> 14. ST: 0 <L2 engine modules L2> <@@> 15. <L2 minor in engine L2> 16. SD: ST: <L2 minor in electrical engineering L2> 18. SD: 0 <XX> <L2 minor in L2> 19. <L2 declare L2> 91

92 20. ST: <L2 module L2> 0.2) 21. <L2 minor L2> 22. SD: ST: <L2 BIZ L2> 24. SD: \! 25. ST: <L2 ground modules L2> <L2 level one L2> = 27. <L2 level two= L2> <L2 level two L2> 28. SD: <L2 econs L2> = 29. ST: 30. SD: \! <L2 lecturer L2>! 31. ST: 32. SD: <L2 lecturer L2> 0.2 = ST: = 35. SD: <L2 buffet L2> 36. ST: 37. SD: English biology mathematics literature programming Post-Graduate Research Scholarship Vacation Internship Program 92

93 super bug Windows thumb drive netbook RAM random access memory password programming Windows thumb drive RAM super bug NT: = = 2. GB: <L2 Netbook L2>? 3. NT: 4. GB: 5. NT: 6. GB: 7. NT: <L2 Netbook L2> <L2 leh! L2> 9. GB: 93

94 10. NT: <L2 Netbook L2> 11. <L2 G L2> G gigabytes 12. GB: <L2 G L2> <L2 G L2> 13. NT: 0 / 1.0 = 14. GB: <L2 G L2> 15. NT: <L2 G L2> 16. GB: [<XX>] NT netbook Dreamweaver Flash

95 Suntec Shaw Foundation House YIH Yusof Ishak House PGP Prince George s Park RVR Ridge View Residence KZ 7 Suntec CHK: <L2 NUS L2> <L2 professor L2> 2. KZ: 0 3. CHK: 4. KZ: 5. CHK: <L2 Suntec L2> Suntec 6. KZ: <L2 Suntec L2> 7. CHK: 0 <L2 Suntec L2> <L2 Suntec= L2> <XX> 9. KZ: <L2 hotel L2> 10. CHK: 0 <L2 hotel L2> <L2 ballroom L2> KZ: 12. CHK: <L2 hotel L2> <L2 Suntec L2> 14. KZ: 0 <L2 Suntec L2> 95

96 15. CHK: <XX> 16. KZ: <XX> 17. CHK: <XX> 18. KZ: 19. CHK: 20. KZ: 0.3 <L2 Suntec? L2> 21. CHK: <L2 Suntec? L2> <XX> 22. KZ: CHK: 24. KZ: 0 <L2 Suntec? Suntec? L2> 25. CHK: <XX> 26. KZ: <L2 Suntec L2> 27. CHK: <XX> 28. KZ: 0 <L2 Suntec L2> 29. CHK: <L2 Suntec L2> ST ST: 2. SD: <XX> 3. ST: <L2 PGP L2> PGP Prince George's Park 4. SD: 5. ST: <L2 RVR L2> RVR Ridge View Residence 6. SD: 7. ST: <L2 RVR L2> 8. SD: 96

97 9. ST: <L2 RVR L2> <L2 PGP L2> 11. SD: 0 =! NT Tiger Tiger Beer NT: 2. QB: [ ] 3. JJ: <XX> 4. NT: 5. JJ: NT: 7. YL: 0 <L2 Tiger L2> 8. NT: [ ] <L2 Tiger L2> <L2 Tiger L2> 10. <L2 Tiger L2> 11. QB: <XX> 12. NT: [<XX>] 13. JJ: [<@@>] 14. QB: 15. YL: 97

98 16. NT: 0 / 17. YL: <@@> Roti Prata Youth Olympic KZ: <XX> <XX> 2. LK: <@XX@> 3. <L2 Roti Prata L2> 4. KZ: 0 = <L2 Roti Prata L2> 5. LK: 0 <L2 Roti Prata L2> 6. KZ: 7. LK: 8. KZ: <XX> 9. LK: <L2 Roti Prata L2> KZ: 0 <L2 Roti Prata L2> NT: <L2 Youth Olympic L2> 2. JJ: <XX> 3. NT: [ ] 4. YL: 0 / 5. NT: <L2 Singapore Youth Olympic! L2> 6. QB: 0 7. JJ:... 98

99 8. NT: [ ] party bank drama hotel long weekend NT: <L2 long weekend L2> <L2 public holiday L2> 3. <L2 weekend L2> 4. GB: 5. NT: GB: 7. NT: 8. GB: <XX> 9. NT: <L2 presentation L2> 10. GB: confuse honor basic chaos pattern ethics bazaar summarise 99

100 SD: = <L2 very surprise L2> = 8. <XX> <L2 summarise L2> 9. ST: <XX> 10. SD: 11. ST: SD: 13. ST: = 0.5 <XX> 14. SD: <XX> <L2 summarise L2> 15. ST: start up as a result of value-added mix and match ST: 2. SD: 0 <XX> <L2 YIH L2> 3. <L2 in-charge room L2> YIH Yusoff Ishak House 100

101 4. ST: = 5. SD: <XX> <L2 YIH L2> ST: 8. SD: <L2 as a result of L2> 10. ST: 11. SD: = <L2 so embarrassed L2> 12. ST: KZ project report

102 1. LK: \= 2. KZ: = LK: KZ: <L2 project L2> <XX><L2 project L2> 7. LK: <XX> <XX> 8. KZ: 9. LK: KZ: <L2 report L2> 11. LK: <L2 project report L2> 12. KZ: LK: 14. KZ: <L2 project L2> Gumperz ST: = 2. SD: = = = = 3. ST: <L2 ATM L2>! ATM 102

103 4. SD: [ =] 5. ST: <L2 ATM L2> <L2 ATM L2>! 6. SD: 0 = = 7. ST: <L2 Living With Mathematics L2> 8. SD: <L2 ATM L2> = 9. ST: 10. SD: [<XX> ] 11. ST: 0 <L2 MC L2> MC modular credit 12. SD: [<XX>] 13. = ST: [ <L2 MC L2> ] 16. <L2 MC L2> 17. SD: 0 ST SD ATM MC Gumperz 1982 Giles 1979 speech convergence 103

104 KZ: 2. CHK: <L2 engineers L2> 3. KZ: <L2 engineering professor L2> 4. CHK: <XX> 5. KZ: 6. CHK: 0 7. KZ: <L2 BIZ L2> <L2 professor L2> <L2 BIZ L2> BIZ 8. CHK: <L2 engine L2> <L2 professor L2> <L2 engine L2> <L2 professor L2> <L2 professor L2> 11. <L2 engineering L2> KZ: 0 <XX> 14. CHK: 5.0 <XX> <XX> 16. KZ: 0 <L2 professor L2> <L2 lecture L2> KZ CHK KZ KZ

105 ST Who knows? No wonder SD: 2. ST: 0 3. SD: 4. ST: <L2 Who knows? L2> SD: 0 7. ST: 0 <L2 No wonder L2> <XX> 8. SD: [ ] 9. <L2 photosynthesis L2> 10. ST: 0 11.SD: 0 9 okay KZ KZ: / <L2 Oh my god! L2> <XX> 4. CHK: 0 5. KZ: 0 6. CHK: <XX> 7. KZ: 0.2 <L2 What can I do? L2> 8. CHK: <L2 do L2> 105

106 9. KZ: 0 <L2 okay= L2> 10. CHK: <XX> Lee

107 GZ CX SS GZ 5 3 then 107

108 GZ: <L2 supervisor L2> 2. <L2 paper L2> 3. <L2 then L2> 4. <L2 then L2> = 5. <Q Q> <XX> 6. = <L2 then L2> = 7. 2 <XX> (( )) 8. LJ: CX Play to work, you don t consider, but you also go to work to the Ya, they are not proud of it. 108

109 % % % % %

110 4 SS TT: = SS: 3. TT: = 4. SS: [<L2 You need an account to synchronise...l2> 5. TT: [<XX>] 6. SS: <L2 Okay L2> <L2 code memo L2> 8. TT: <L2 password L2> <L2 plain L2> = 10. SS: <L2 Singtel L2> 11. TT: 12. SS: <L2 M One top up L2> 13. <L2 line L2> Singtel M1 14. TT: = 15. SS: <L2 line L2> 16. TT: = CX 110

111 CX: 2. SN: 3. CX: I got your consent, okay? 4. SN: yalor, yalor, yalor L2> 5. CX: <L2 For the next two months L2> 6. SN: <L2 Ya! L2> 7. CX: <L2 You won t meet already? L2> 8. SN: <L2 For the next two months, at least. L2> 9. CX: <L2 Why? L2> 10. SN: <XX> bike shop 7 TA teaching assistant 5 bike shop TA ZA: = <L2 agree L2> hor SS: <L2 bike shop L2> 111

112 6. ZA: 7. SS: <L2 trade L2> 8. ZA: <L2 trade L2> 9. SS: = 10. ZA: 11. SS: <L2 bike shop L2> = <L2 then L2> <L2 bike shop L2> 16. <L2 bike shop L2> 17. ZA: 18. SS: / <L2 bike shop L2> liao ZA: <L2 trade in L2> Err=, 21. SS: = 22. ZA: <L2 bike L2> 23. SS: = 24. ZA: 25. SS: = 26. ZA: [ ] 27. SS: <L2 bike shop L2> 28. ZA: <L2 bike L2> <L2 bike L2> 30. SS: SS bike shop 112

113 % % % % % %

114 6.2 okay then but meh, hor lor ya-lor / ah-lor lor ya-lor / ah-lor CX: = 2. ZC: 0 = 3. CX: 4. MS: 0 114

115 5. CX: 6. ZC: 7. CX: <L2 Yah lor, Yah lor L2> 8. = CX ya-lor okay 33 okay okay CX: MZ: [<XX>] 3. CX: 4. MZ: [ <XX>] 5. = 6. CX: = <@@> 7. MZ: \=! 8. CX: <L2 Okay! Okay! Okay! L2> 0.4 temporary impossible significant casual arrogant creamy plain 4 temporary temporary 115

116 GZ: ZH: 0 <XX> 3. GZ: <L2 visiting L2> 4. <L2 temporary L2> ZH: [<XX>] 6. GZ: = 7. ZH: = 8. GZ: 0 <L2 post-doc L2> 9. ZH: 0 <XX> officially psychologically WK: <L2 rest L2> 2. CX: 3. WK: 0 <L2 brain L2> <L2 progress L2> 4. CX: <L2 psychologically L2> <@@> 5. WK: 0 <L2 Which is why L2> 6. CX: 0 <XX> LJ: 116

117 2. GZ : 0 <L2 officially L2> 3. <L2 percent off L2> 4. LJ: <L2 then L2> 5. GZ: [<L2 then= L2>](0.3) 6. <L2 thirty percent off L2> = 7. LJ: [ \]C 8. GZ: 0 = <L2 then= L2> CX GZ 6.2 Fishman 1968 domain theory Fishman specific domain 117

118 Master(s) post-doc post-doctoral GZ: = (0.2) <L2 postdoc L2> 2. <L2 post-doc L2> 0.8 = 3. ZH: 4. GZ: <L2 post-doc L2><XX> 5. ZH: [<XX>] 118

119 GZ: = 0.2 <L2 end up L2> 2. YW: <XX> <XX> <XX> 3. = 0.4 <L2 master= L2> 4. GZ: 0 <L2 master L2> <L2 master= L2> 5. YW: = 6. GZ: 7. YW: 0.3 <L2 master= L2> 8. GZ: [ ] 9. YW: 0.2 TA teaching assistant RA research assistant CCA co-curriculum actvities SS DSA Direct School Admission SS SS SS: 2. TT: 0 3. SS: 0 4. TT: 5. SS: 0 6. TT: 0 <L2 DSA L2> 119

120 DSA Direct School Admission 7. SS: 0 <L2 DSA L2> PSLE 8. TT: <L2 DSA L2> = = <L2 PSLE L2> 10. <L2 CCA L2> 2.0 = = 11. SS: <L2 CCA L2> <L2 leh! L2> 12. TT: 13. SS: <L2 CCA L2>? 14. TT: 0 = <L2 eh=! L2> 15. SS: 16. TT: SS: TT: SS: <L2 CCA L2> 21. TT: [ <L2 Okay L2>!] 22. SS: 23. TT: SS: <L2 O level L2> 25. <L2 CCA L2> <L2 leh! L2> O level 26. TT: = answer steps project presentation group compile prepare paper research fellow fresh grad fresh graduate assistant professor 120

121 mathematical model group compile prepare paper SS: <L2 hor/ L2> 3.0 <L2 feedback leh L2> 2. <L2 exercise L2> <L2 feedback L2> <L2 group L2> <L2 group compile L2> 5. <L2 group L2> <L2 answer, compile L2> 6. <L2 feedback L2> 7. <L2 exercise L2> <L2 feedback L2> <L2 leh= L2>! 9. ZA: 10. SS: = <L2 answer L2> <L2 leh! L2> <XX><L2 answer steps L2> 13. ZA: 14. SS: <L2 improve L2> SS hor leh 121

122 Bluetooth wireless Windows WIFI website SS: FF MM <L2 Bluetooth L2> 3. TT: / 4. SS: <L2 Bluetooth L2> 6. TT: err= 7. SS: 8. TT: 9. SS: <L2 Okay= L2> <L2 options...l2> <L2 Oh! No...L2> 12. FF 13. TT: 122

123 14. SS: <L2 visible L2> 15. TT: 0.6 <XX> 16. SS: Bluetooth Bluetooth Bluetooth GZ GZ: <L2 check L2> = 2. LJ: [ =] 3. GZ: = 0.5 = 0.4 = <L2 check L2> 5. LJ: [ =] 6. GZ: 7. = <@@> 8. LJ: [<@@>] 9. GZ: = <L2 wireless L2> 10. LJ: 0 <XX> GZ: 0.5 <L2 Windows L2> 12. <L2 WIFI L2> 13. <L2 data L2> =

124 14. <L2 WIFI L2> 15. LJ: [ =] 16. GZ: check 8 record video SS: <L2 plan L2> 2. ZA: 3. SS: [ =] <L2 mid-term L2> mid-term mid-term exam 4. ZA: <L2 as in? L2> 5. SS: <L2 Project presentation? term paper? L2> 6. ZA: 7. SS: <L2 record video L2> <L2 prepare paper L2> <L2 mid-term L2><L2 leh? L2> 12.ZA: 13.SS: <L2 mid-term L2> 14.ZA: =

125 Harbour Front Pasir Panjang Buona Vista Bugis Clementi Marine Parade Suntec Raffles City YIH Yusof Ishak House LJ: 2. GZ: 0 <L2 Pasir Panjang L2> = 3. = 0.2 <L2 condo L2> = 4. LJ : [ ] 5. GZ :

126 6. GZ: errr <Q <L2 voucher L2> Q> LJ: 11. GZ : 0 <L2 Harbour Front L2> = = 12. LJ: GZ: <XX> <L2 hub L2> 0.3 GZ condo condominium hub voucher NL: = 2. CX: [ = ] 3. = 0.3 <L2 plan L2> NL: 0 ern\= = <L2 tour L2> 126

127 6. CX: 0 <L2 is it? L2> 7. <L2 airline L2> 8. NL: 0 /= CX: 0 <XX> 10. <L2 Garuda Indonesia L2> Garuda Indonesia 11. NL: 0 <XX> NL CX CX Garuda Indonesia NL CX SS carpark bike POSB SS: 2. ZA: <L2 ya lah= L2> 3. SS: <L2 Then L2> 4. ZA: <L2 Then L2> <L2 Parkway L2> <XX> 8. SS: <L2 lor= L2> 9. ZA: 10. SS: 11. ZA: \ 127

128 12. SS: 13. ZA: SS: 15. ZA: 16. SS: ZA: <L2 parking L2> 18. SS: = 2.0 <L2 carpark L2> 19. <L2 bike L2> 20. ZA: 21. SS: <L2 leh? L2> 22. ZA: = <L2 PSA L2> PSA Port of Singapore Authority 23. SS: 0.6 <L2 POSB L2>? POSB 24. ZA: <L2 Hawker Center L2> <L2 carpark L2> <L2 park L2> 26. SS: <L2 Marine Parade L2> Marine Parade = GZ: = <L2 RA L2> 2. <L2 PR L2> <XX> RA Research Assistant PR Permanent Resident 128

129 3. LJ: [ ] 4. GZ: <XX><L2 Business Admin L2> <XX> 5. LJ: [<XX>] 6. GZ: <L2 RA L2> 7. <L2 full time L2> 8. <L2 PR L2> = 9. LJ: [ =] 10. GZ: = 0.5 <L2 NGS L2> 11. = = 0.2 <L2 RA L2> = 13. <L2 scholarship L2> = 14. = 0.2 NGS 15. LJ: 0? 16. GZ: [ ] 17. <XX> <L2 after NGS L2> 18. LJ: [ =] 19. GZ: = <L2 reject L2> LJ: = GZ: 0.2 = = 0.2 <L2 social visit L2> 23. LJ: 0.2 <L2 employment pass L2> / 24. GZ: = PR permanent resident social visit 129

130 CX agar agar CX CX: \ 2. MZ:...<XX> 3. CX: [ = ] <L3 agar agar L3><L2 hor/ L2> <@ agar agar 5. MZ: <L3 agar agar L3> <XX> 7. CX: [ ] 8. MZ: 9. CX: \! mass production compensable with as usual form hypothesis 130

131 SS: 2. ZA: 3. SS: 0 4. ZA: 5. SS: 0 err= 0.4 <L2 German words L2> 6. ZA: <L2 expression L2> 7. SS: <L2 video L2> 8. <L2 variables L2> <L2 form hypothesis L2> <L2 partner L2> = 11. ZA: 12. SS: 0.4 <L2 participants L2> 13. ZA: <L2 Are they in the...l2><xx>? 14. SS: /? ZA: 17. SS: <L2 auntie L2> 1.0 <L2 auntie L2> 18. ZA: SS: <L2 publisher L2> <L2 order L2> 21. ZA: 0 /? 22. SS: ZA: [ ] 24. <L2 anonymous L2> 131

132 25. SS: <L2 author L2> 26. arrogant pattern causal creamy LZ: 2. CX: <XX> TS: 4. CX: <L2 Ya=, they are not proud of it. L2> 5. TS: <L2 So arrogant! L2> 6. CX: <L2 Arrogant L2> 7. TS: <L2 Extremely arrogant! L2> 8. CX: 9. LZ: 10. CX: 11. TS: CX arrogant 132

133 Gumperz 1982 voucher Jetstar GZ: errr <Q <L2 voucher L2> Q> LJ: 6. GZ : 0 <L2 Harbour Front L2> = = 7. LJ: 0 8. GZ: <XX> <L2 hub L2>

134 LJ: <L2 Jetstar L2> = 10. GZ 0 <Q <L2 Jetstar L2> Q> = <Q \ Q> 12. <XX> 13. LJ: [ = 0.5 =\] GZ GZ: <L2 module L2> 2. LJ: <L2 SU L2> 3. GZ: 0 <L2 pass or fail L2> <L2 talk L2> 5. <L2 talk L2> give up end up LJ: 2. GZ: <L2 give up L2> 134

135 3. LJ: GZ: 6. <L2 end up L2> 7. LJ: 0 8. GZ: 0 9. LJ: Gumperz 1982 CX okay CX: <@?@> 2. MN: 0 <L2 Why not try? L2> 3. CX: <L2 Not I think L2> 4. MN: 0 <XX> 5. CX: <L2 Okay Okay L2> <XX> 6. MN: 0 7. CX: 135

136 CX then MN: 9. CX: ) <L2 Then, then L2> <XX> 11. <L2 mass production lor L2> 12. \ 13. <@XX@> speech convergence Gumperz 1982 Giles 1979 GZ GZ 136

137 LJ: 2. GZ : 0 <L2 officially L2> 3. <L2 percent off L2> 4. LJ: <L2 then L2> 5. GZ: [<L2 then= L2>](0.3) 6. <L2 thirty percent off L2> = 7. LJ: [ \] 8. GZ: 0 = <L2 then= L2> CX: <XX> <L2 information L2>, 2. <L2 type L2> = 3. <L2 background L2> <L2 background L2> 4. LZ: [ =] 5. CX: 6. LY: 0 <L2 publish L2> 7. LZ: [ =] 8. LY: 0 <L2 paper L2> CX: 0 <L2 background L2> 137

138 LY: [ ] [ ] 12. CX: 13. LY: 0 = 14. CX: <L2 background L2> 15. LZ: <L2 paper L2> 16. CX: <L2 knowledge L2> 17. LY: [ ] 18. CX: <L2 paper L2> 19. <L2 complete L2> 20. <L2 complete L2> <L2 complete L2> 21. <L2 nature L2> 0.2 <L2 size L2> 22. <L2 idea L2> 23. <L2 complete L2> 24. LY: 0 = SS: 2. ZA: <L2 bike L2> 3. SS: 4. ZA: 0 <L2 bike shop L2> 5. SS: <L2 bike shop L2> <L2 meh? L2> 6. <L2 Okay L2> <@@> <L2 leh! L2> <@@> 8. <L2 meh? L2> 9. ZA: <XX> 10.SS: <L2 then L2> <L2 Okay L2> 138

139 SS CX meh leh hor okay CX okay CX: 2. HL: 3. CX: <L2 share L2> 4. HL: 5. CX: [<XX>] 6. <L2 double, double, double L2> 7. HL: 8. CX: 0 9. HL: 10. <L2 internet L2> 11. CX: 12. HL: CX: <L2 Okay! Okay! L2> 14. HL: 139

140 SS as usual lor SS: 2. ZA: 0 = 3. SS: 0 4. ZA: 5. SS: <L2 Hawker Center L2>? Hawker Center 6. ZA: <XX> 7. SS: = <L2 Food Court, Food Court! L2> Food Court 8. ZA: <L2 then L2> 9. SS: = 10. ZA: 11. SS: = 12. ZA: <XX> 13. SS: 0 = 14. ZA: <L2 the usual L2> 15. SS: = 16. ZA: 0.3 <L2 berry L2> = 17. SS: <L2 as usual lor L2> 18. ZA: [<L2 mango L2> ] 19. SS: 0 = 20. ZA: <L2 berry L2> 21. SS: <XX> <L2 open L2> 22. ZA: 0 <L2 mango L2> 140

141 23. SS: err= 24. ZA: err= <L2 lor= L2> 25. SS: ZA: 27. SS: <L2 Okay! Okay! L2> 141

142 Hoffmann 1991 unbalanced bilinguals

143 7.1 Grosjean 1998 Grosjean A B B A B intermediate mode B B B 143

144 A B A Grosjean 1998 Grosjean hr % hr % hr % hr %

145 0.8% 2 KZ KZ hr % hr % hr % hr %

146 TA teaching assistant RA research assistant PR permanent resident QE qualifying exam ISM Independent Study Module NIE National Institute of Education NUS National University of 146

147 Singapore assignment field report enjoy then paper book review research seminar financial accounting year one full time thirty percent off Raffles City Clark Quay Harbour Front No wonder! What can I do? I think so % % % % %

148 2000 Lee % % % % % % % % % % % % % % % %

149

150 % % % % % %

151 oh well now then you know I mean so because but or meh lor hor yalor % % % 0 0% % % % % 2 40% % % % % 3 60% % % % % 5 100% %

152 Lee

153 7.2 Fishman 1968 domain theory Fishman 1970 specific domains 153

154 presentation theory journal seminar TA teaching assistant field work engine modules group project homework presentation double degree minor in electrical engine Financial Accounting Einstein s Law of Motion Brownie Motion ST 154

155 SD ST: 2. SD: 3. ST: = 0.3 <L2 bid L2> <L2 EB L2> 4. <L2 module L2> 0.2 EB Elective Business 5. SD: 6. ST: [ = ] [ ] <L2 ethics L2> 8. SD: 0 = 0.4 <L2 ethics L2> 9. ST: 0 <L2 accounting L2> 10. SD: 0 <L2 accounting= L2> 11. ST: SD: 0 <L2 accounting= L2> 13. ST: 0 <L2 mathematics L2> 14. SD: <@@> 15. ST: 0.3 <L2 essay L2> 16. SD: [<@@>] 17. <L2 accounting L2> <L2 project L2> 18. <L2 group project L2> <L2 report L2> 19. ST: 20. SD: = 0.3 = 21. ST: [ <L2 presentation L2> ] 22. = 23. SD: [ ] 24. <L2 homework presentation L2> 155

156 25. ST: [ =] SD: err= 0.2 <L2 project L2> <L2 present L2> <L2 present L2> <XX> 30. <L2 actually L2> <L2 concept= L2> 31. <L2 accounting L2> 32. <L2 new language L2> <L2 confuse L2> 33. <L2 concept= L2> 34. ST: [ = ] 35. group compile prepare paper 156

157 7.2.2 Verschueren 1990 agar agar 157

158 Roti Prata meh leh yalor hor SS ZA: 2. SS: <L2 Yoshi= Yono L2> <L2 noya L2> 3. ZA: [<L2 noya! L2> ] Yoshinoya 4. SS: 0.3 = 5. <L2 Suntec L2> Suntec Suntec City 6. ZA: <L2 No! L2> 7. SS: 0 <L2 meh? L2> 8. ZA: 0 9. SS: = 10. ZA: [ <L2 Suntec L2> <L2 Raffles City L2>] Raffles City 11. SS: / <L2 Raffles City L2> 0.4 <XX> = 12. ZA: [<XX>] 13. SS: <L2 Lasik! Lasik! L2> 158

159 ZA: <XX> 16. SS: 17. ZA: <XX> 18. SS: / <L2 casual L2> 19. ZA: 0.2 <L2 plain L2> 20. SS: [err=] 21. <L2 plain L2> 22. ZA: [ ] 23. SS: ZA: [ <L2 lor= L2>] = 25. SS: [ ] 26. ZA: [ <L2 act L2>] <L2 lor= L2> 27. SS: 28. ZA: <L2 Ah Peng L2> Ah Peng 29. SS: <@@> 30. ZA: [ ] err= <L2 Ah Peng, Ah Peng L2> = 32. SS: <L2 Ah Peng L2> <L2 meh? L2> 33. ZA: = <L2 Ah Peng L2> 35. SS: <L2 Okay= L2> 36. ZA: [<XX>] 159

160 7.3 Giles 1979 speech accommodation theory Verschueren Theory of Adaptation convergence 160

161 SS SS: 2. ZA: err= 3. SS: ZA: <L2 skid L2> 6. SS: <L2 skid L2> <L2 skid L2> 7. ZA: 0 <L2 skate L2>! 8. SS: = <L2 skate L2> 0.5 <L2 skate L2>? 9. ZA: SS: <@@> 11. ZA: <L2 Raymond L2> 12. SS: ZA: 0 <L2 Raymond L2>! 14. SS: <L2 Raymond L2> <L2 Raymond L2> = 17. ZA: 18. SS: 0.6 <L2 Chinese language L2> <L2 then L2> 161

162 20. ZA: <L2 New Media L2>! 21. SS: <L2 New Media L2> 22. ZA: <L2 OG L2> < L2 Orientation Group L2> 23. SS: <XX> <L2 OG L2> 24. ZA: = <L2 Raymond L2> 25. SS: = = <L2 Raymond L2> 26. ZA: Gumperz 1982 speech convergence we code they code Gumperz 1982 Lee

163 KZ KZ Singlish LX Singlish 163

164 Grosjean 1998 A LANGUAGE A : base language Monolingual Language Mode Bilingual Language Mode B LANGUAGE B : guest language 164

165 Lee

166 intra-sentential switching inter-sentential switching XY 2. WD 3. XY WD / <L2 I don t care. L2> 5. XY <L2 don t care L2> / 6. WD <L2 pass L2> 7. XY [ =] <L2 pass L2> = 0.8 = 9. WD 4 I don t care. 6 pass WD 8 166

167 Fishman

168 20 168

169 169