令 TV to command, to order, to make N command, order N magistrate (one who is in charge) Although 令 can take a simple noun phrase as its object, it is often used to introduce a clause (subject + predicate) indicating the content of the command. 孔子令曾子 孔子令曾子衣弊衣以耕
X 有 Y In/among X there is/was Y. (X is SUBJECT; Y is OBJECT; both are NP) 山有虎 樹上有鳥 山有害人之虎 山有害人者 軍中有敢諫者 In the mountains there is a tiger. In the tree is a bird. In the mountains there is a tiger that harms people. In the mountains there was something harming the people. Within the army there was one who dared to remonstrate.
見 TV to see TV to have an audience w/ ruler; to grant an audience marks a verb as passive (similar to MC 被 ), e.g. 見殺 loangraph for 現 to appear, to make manifest
何 standard interrogative pronoun used adverbially in the sense of 何以 子何笑? 子笑何? 子何以笑?
乃 conjunction sometimes emphatic: "nothing other than " A 乃 B 也 sometimes indicates subsequence /consequence: "then"; "thereupon" 隨汝者乃汝之影也. 見屋中有酒 管仲乃欲飲之 兒謀擊鴉 乃伺之於樹下 That which follows you is none other than your shadow! Seeing that there was ale in the room, Guan Zhong then wanted to drink it. The child, plotting to strike the crow, consequently lay in wait for it below the tree.
有以 and 無以 有以 = 有所以 ; 無以 = 無所以 有 [ 所 ] 以 +V= to have the means to V 無 [ 所 ] 以 +V= to not have the means to V 無以為家 將有以利吾國乎 I have not the means to act on behalf of my family ( 戰國策 ). Surely you will have something by which to benefit my country ( 孟子 1A/1)!
所 always precedes a transitive verb (TV) forms a noun phrase that stands for the object of the TV the agent of the TV can be added as a modifier (with or without 之 ) TV TV-O 所 + TV (=NP) 知 to know 知命 to know fate 所知 what is known 順 to obey 順天 to obey Heaven 所順 what is obeyed 在 to be at 在地 to be on earth 所在 where one is at
所 in coverbal expressions 養 to nourish 所養我 [ 之 ] 所養我 [ 之 ] 所養之牛我為家 [ 之 ] 所養之牛 所以養我 [ 之 ] 所以養我 [ 之 ] 所以養牛我 [ 之 ] 所以為家養牛 自 CV from 起 to arise 亂 disorder 所自起 亂 [ 之 ] 所自起 Note: When used to indicate 所於 (where something happens), the coverb 於 is omitted (but implied) 所居 = 所於居 =where one dwells
當 TV to face, to encounter CV at, occupying (a place or time); facing AUX V marking future tense "to be about to" AUX V ought, should, must 今王病疾矣, 七日當死 The king's illness is now extreme. He will die [within] seven days. 我當去矣 I ought to be going [already].
當 X[ 之 ] 時 forms time clause: "at the time when X" X can be a noun phrase, verb phrase or an entire clause 當 and/or 時 can be omitted 當桑之時... 當攻魯之時... 當齊公還之時... 春樹之以桑 ( 當春之時 ) 齊公還, 其國已失 ( 當齊公還之時 )
與 1. TV to associate with; to give 2. CV with, together with 3. CONJ joining nouns and sometimes 2 and 3 are indistinguishable TV 正直是與 Associate with the correct and straight. CV: 不與惡人言 He would not speak with an evil person. CONJ: 夫與妻俱之田 The man and his wife went to the fields together.
之 particle of explicit modification object pronoun TV to go to
夫 1. fū man, person, huband 2. fú this, these, that, those 3. fú introductory "throat-clearing" particle "Now then.." 夫人不言 This person does not speak. 夫貪小利以自快, 棄信於諸侯 Now then, if you covet a petty benefit in order to please oneself, you will forsake your trustworthiness among the various lords.
因 1. TV to rest upon, to rely on, to follow 2. CV according to, because of, based on, relying on 3. CONJ therefore, accordingly thereupon, then (equivalent to 因 [ 此 ] according to/following this CV: 因能事君 Serve the ruler according to one s ability. CONJ: 齊公無禮 因不受其賜 The Duke of Qi is without manners. Accordingly, [he] did not accept his gift.
女 1. nǚ: woman, girl, female, daughter 2. rǔ: you (informal 2nd person pronoun) loangraph for 汝 女不知禮也 It is the case that you do not understand ritual propriety.
今 TIMEWORD: now, at present can refer to present situation rather than present time sometimes a week introductory particle (similar to now in English)
是 demonstrative pronoun "this slightly different from 此 often used to resumes a previous discourse 知之為知之 不知為不知 是知也 When you know it, to recognize that you know it, when you don t know to recognize that you don t know, this is knowing (Lunyu 論語 2/17).
X Y 也 equational nominal sentence X and Y are both nouns or noun phases basic meaning: X is Y extended meanings: X is tantamount to Y; X is because of Y 也 can be omitted negated with 非 not 不 孔子聖人也 孔子言仁義者也 君子所行禮也 國亂君不君也 此齊國 文王非聖人也 孔子非言利者也 小人所行非禮也 國亂非我也 此非齊國
於是 conjunction indicating what happened next often translated thereupon. usually at head of sentence, occasionally after subject. sometimes expanded to 於是乎.
方 1. square, direction 2. method, technique, recipe --------------------- 3. just then; just at that time (indicates simultaneity) sometimes used adverbially sometimes used to introduce a subordinate just when clause 方鼓而志在太山 方伯牙子 [ 之 ] 鼓琴, 志在太山
哉 emphatic final particle marks exclamation or surprise
乎 final particle that serves to: turn an affirmative statement into a question (?) sometimes the usage is rhetorical and marks an exclamatory statement (!) distinct usage as CV identical in function to 於 於禮可乎? 管仲飲酒乎? 天以德報為善者乎?
Emphatic Forms addition of emphatic sentence final 哉 rhetorical question: 乎 (but 乎 is not always rhetorical) inversion of subject and predicate any combination of the above 鼓琴善 鼓琴善乎? 鼓琴善哉!鼓琴善哉乎! 善哉乎鼓琴!
以 [X] 為 Y "to consider X as Y," "to regard X as Y 百姓皆以王為愛也 民猶以爲小也 世人以形色名聲為足以得彼之情 The common people all took Your Majesty to be stingy. ( 孟子 1A.7) The people still considered it to be small (note: 以 is equivalent to 以之 ). ( 孟子 1B.2) The people of the world consider the form, color, name and sound (of something) sufficient to grasp the nature of that thing. ( 莊子 13.67)
auxiliary verb 足 伯牙為鍾子期鼓琴 S agent CV O coverb V O verb 足以 +V describes the agent of V 伯牙足以鼓琴 足 +V describes the target of V 琴足鼓 足為 +V describes the target of CV 鍾子期足為鼓琴 As auxiliary verbs 可, 難, and 易 have same functions.
足可難易 as auxiliary verbs When used in combination with a main verb, these auxiliaries create a compound verb that describes the subject in different ways, depending on whether the grammatical subject is the agent of the verb, the target (or patient) of the verb (the thing acted upon). 足 / 可 / 難 / 易 + VERB: describes the target of the VERB. 鳥難擊王可殺 The bird is difficult to hit. The king can be killed. 足 / 可 / 難 / 易 + 以 + VERB: describes the agent of the VERB 伯牙易以鼓琴 Bo Ya easily plays the harp. 參之言足以全節 Shen's words are sufficient to preserve virtue.
足 ("to be sufficient") 難 ("to be difficult") 易 ("to be easy") 可 ("to be permissible or possible") 則文王不足法與 Then is King Wen not sufficient to be taken as a model? 久則難變也 Having lasted a long time, it will be difficult to be changed. 三年學不至於穀 不易得也 To study for three years and not arrive at goodness, this is not something that is easy to be attained. 國可治 The state can be governed. 吾力足以舉百鈞而不足以舉一羽 My strength is sufficient to lift 3,000 catties but is not sufficient to lift a single feather 為人使易以偽 為天使難以偽 When you serve man, it is easy to cheat, but when you serve heaven it is difficult to cheat. 王可以治國 The king can govern the state.
足可難易 as auxiliary verbs USED WITH COVERBS When used in combination with both a coverb (other than 以 ) and a main verb, these auxiliaries create a compound verb that describes implied object of the coverb not the agent of the verb or coverb and not the target (or patient) of the main verb. 足 / 可 / 難 / 易 + COVERB + VERB: describes the implied object (or target) of the coverb. 法律難自逃 Laws and statutes are difficult to flee from. 孔子易與言 Confucius is easy to speak with. 家可於掛冠者也 Home is where one can hang a hat [at]. 周文王足為死 King Wen of Zhou was worth dying for. 民可為憂 The people are whom one ought to worry for.
一兔不足為百人分 一兔不足分 A single rabbit is insufficient to share [for 100 people]. 此琴不足為鍾子期鼓 此琴不足鼓 This harp is insufficient to play for Zhong Ziqi.
非獨 CONJ "not only " often works in tandem with 且 "moreover" and/or 亦 "also" 吾非獨樂山且亦樂水 非獨賢者有是心也, 人皆有之 非獨壺深水亦淺
然 equivalent in meaning to 如之 often translated "to be so", "to be like so", "to be like this" refers back to some statement or situation mentioned previously. often used together with conjunctions such as 雖, 而, and 則 雖然 Although it is so (> However, Nonetheless) 然而 It is like this, but (> However, Nonetheless) 然則 If it is like this, then (> Consequently) 然後 It is like this, and then. (> After this )
雖 CONJUNCTION (subordinating) introduces an although (or even though ) clause when subject is expressed, 雖 follows the subject (S 雖 PRED) may be resumed in the main clause by 猶 ("still") or 而 ("yet") before a NOUN phrase, it means "even in the case of " 我雖不得魚, 無禍 鳥雖盡力, 猶不得飲. 雖大國必畏之矣 Even though I don't catch a fish, there will be no disaster. Although the bird used all its strength, he still was not able to drink. Even great countries will certainly be in awe of him. ( 孟子 2A.4)
由 TV "to follow along" or "to proceed from" (less common) CV "from" (in spatial, temporal, or logical sense) 舍正路而不由 由鄒之任見季子 由此可見 He abandoned the correct path and did not follow it [full verb] ( 孟子 4A/11). He went from Zou to Ren to visit Jizi [CV] ( 孟子 6B/5). From this we can see [CV].
盡 1. TV to exhaust, to use to the fullest; to carry out something to the fullest extent 2. ADV exhaustively, entirely, completely, thoroughly, all, everyone. TV: 忠士盡力事其君 ADV: 以天下之美為盡在己
自 COVERB from, along ADVERB (reflexive) oneself; of it's own accord; naturally 甩
X [ 者 ] Y 也 (revisited) basic meaning: X is Y extended meaning "the explanation for X is Y" "that X is true is because of Y " (in such cases X and Y are clauses and X is marked by 者 ) 伯牙絕弦不復鼓琴者, 以為世無足為鼓琴者也
知音 "to know the tune" an intimate friend, soul mate
嘗 ADV indicating past tense in the sense of "once in the past. " In the affirmative, often paired with the final particle 矣. Verbs with 嘗 are negated by 未 not 不 ; 未嘗 is often paired with final particle 也. 吾嘗聞大勇於夫子矣 未嘗與之言行事也 未嘗至於偃之室也 I once heard about great courage from the Master ( 孟子 2A/2). [You] never spoke with him about the business of the mission ( 孟子 2B/6). [You] have never come to Yan's house ( 論語 6).
亡 TV to lose, to destroy, to die, to be lost, to escape sometimes a loan for 無, "to not have," "to not exist." In such cases, 亡 is conventionally pronounced wú instead of wáng 穆公亡秦往晉 Duke Mu fled the state of Qin and went to Jin. 人皆有兄弟 我獨亡 Everyone [else] has brothers. I alone have not. ( 論語 12/5)
已 V to end, to bring to an end ADV already 伯牙至, 鍾子期已死矣 孟子對曰 : 王! 何必曰利? 亦有仁義而已矣
謂 1. TV: to name; to assume, to think. 2. CV: to say [to someone], to address [someone] Note that when the object of the coverb is 之, it is often omitted. TV: 得其天性謂之德 As for obtaining one's heavenly nature, [we] call this "virtue." CV: 穆公謂 [ 之 ] 曰 Duke Mu said to them
諸 1. Noun modifier indicating a group or multiplicity not simply a pluralizer (which is typically unmarked in CC) all the the various, the whole group of ; e.g. 諸侯 2. FUSION of 之於 3. FINAL PARTICLE: fusion of 之乎 1: 諸人皆懼而起 2: 公賜邑於曾子 公賜之於曾子 公賜諸曾子 3: 曾子受邑乎? 曾子受之乎? 曾子受諸?
皆 all or in all cases (similar to the MC 都 ). Subject 皆 Verb (adverbial usage). X 皆 Y 也. Can refer to plural subject or plural object. When the subject is omitted, often translated as indefinite pronoun 1. 群兒皆樂. The entire group of children was happy. 2. 汝皆樂之乎. Do you enjoy all of these? (note plural object) 3. 四海之內皆兄弟也. Within the 4 seas, all are brothers. 4. 皆古聖人也. All were sages of old. (omitted subject)
食 shí : N food, rice; V to eat ----------- sì: TV to feed (i.e. to cause/allow one to eat)
即 1. TV to approach, to come to 2. ADV immediately, right at that time 3. CONJ then (similar to 則 ) 4. CONJ if, even if 5. EMPHATIC X 即 Y X is indeed Y; X is precisely Y, X is none other than Y
1. 宋以其善於晉侯也, 叛楚即晉 2. 穆公曰: 吾聞食駿馬肉不飲酒者殺人 即以次飲之酒 3. 今魯城壞, 即壓齊境!君其圖之! Song, because of having made friends with the Marquis of Jin, revolted against Chu and went over to Jin. Duke Mu said, I have heard that eating the flesh of a swift horse but not drinking ale [with it] will kill a person. Immediately he gave them something to drink in turn. Now, were the walls of Lu (that is the capital city of Lu) to crumble, then they would cover over the borders of Qi. 4. 即飢寒毒熱不可忍, 不去也 5. 吾何愛一牛? 即不忍其觳觫, 若無罪而就死地, 故以羊易之也 Even if the hunger, cold, noxious fumes, or heat were intolerable, he would not leave [the stables]. How could I be greedy over a single ox? It is simply that that I couldn t bear its whimpering like an innocent man being taken to the execution ground, so I told them to substitute a sheep.
居 1. to occupy [a place], to live [in a place]. 2. to pass by [of time]. 太王居岐山之下 居數月, 孔子返魯 King Tai made his residence at the foot of Mt. Qi. After three months, Confucius returned to Lu.
相 xiāng: ADV mutually, each other ----------- xiàng: N assistant, government minister, V to serve as minister 獸相食 Animals eat each other. 管仲相齊桓公 Guan Zhong served as prime minister to Duke Huan of Qi.
相 (adverb) always appears immediately before a verb or coverb works only with transitive verbs object of verb typically omitted because it is implicit in 相 when subject of the verb is plural, 相 indicates that the object of the verb are the members of the plural subject set off against each other. 諸侯相爭 The various lords compete against one another. sometimes used when the action is not reciprocal to show a mutual bond between subject and object (Pulleyblank, 137). 兒童相見而不相識 The children saw [me] but didn't recognize [me].
相 (and coverbs) 相 can also work with coverbs: 四人相與語曰 The four men speaking with each other said Note the following combinations: 相 [ 與 ] with one another 相 [ 為 ] for one another 相 [ 謂 [ addressing one another 相 [ 對 ] facing one another Sometimes the coverb is omitted but clearly implied: 猶相積惡也 They are still accumulating evils against each other.
可 SV permissible, suitable, acceptable AUX V transforms (by making passive) a TV into a SV : "-able" AUX V may, can (abbreviated form of 可以 ) AUX V (hortatory) should, ought 事親若曾子者, 可也 One who serves one's parent like Master Zeng did is OK ( 孟子 4A19). 王可殺 王可殺人 The king is killable. The king can be killed The king can kill people. 秦女絕美, 王可自取 The woman of Qin is extremely beautiful. You Majesty should take her for yourself ( 史記 66.2171). 可以出死報食馬得酒之恩矣!
矣 used in verbal predicates (not X Y 也 ) shows completed action (often used in conjunction with 已 ) indicates new situation similar to 了 in modern Chinese 臣曰 : 勿出! 而鳥已亡矣 The Minister said, "Do not allow him to go out," but the bird had already fled. (completed action) 往時之恩, 我今能報矣 As for that favor from long ago, I am now able to repay it. (new situation)
矣 也 only in verbal predicates conveys action or change 古聖皆死矣 basic usage: X Y 也 extended usage in verbal predicate conveys identity, classification, judgment 是吾駿馬也!參之言, 足以全其節也 臣笑其曠也 驥不自至千里者, 待伯樂而後至也
遂 TV to accord with, to follow CONJ then, thereupon (always used pre-verbally) TV: 性不得不遂 One cannot but follow one's nature. CONJ: 往時食馬肉者遂潰圍 Those who had previously eaten the horsemeat thereupon broke through the siege.
卒 1. N foot soldier 2. V to end, to come to an end; to die; ADV finally, in the end 王卒戰而不勝 The royal troops went to battle but did not win. 居三月秦穆公卒 After three months, Duke Mu of Qin died.
以 COVERB instrument ("by means of...") direct obj. (used w/ verbs of giving) reason ("for the reason that...") CONJUNCTION "in order to..." 我以觴飲酒 君賜臣以邑 妻以夫追女大怒 往田以耕
桓公舉觴以飲之 verb phrase A 以 verb phrase B 桓公舉觴以飲之 Duke Huan raised his cup in order to have him drink. verb phrase A, 以之 verb phrase B 桓公舉觴, 以之飲之 Duke Huan raised his cup and by means of this had him drink.