high for more than one platform on the user sides, network effects are positive and strong, and there are no strong preferences for special features f

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1 Competing in a Converging ICT Market 在凝聚中的 ICT 市場中保持競爭力 1. Introduction One of the major phenomena in the information and communication technology (ICT) industry today is convergence. The European Commission (1997) defines technological convergence as the ability of different network platforms to carry essentially similar kinds of services or the coming together of consumer devices such as the telephone, television, and personal computer. This means that users can * # access information in an interactive way using any type of terminal over several alternative media. In fact, convergence has been around for a decade or so, ever since the digitalization of computers, communications, and other forms of electronics. It unites the functions of the computer, telephone, and television on the terminal side and a common distribution platform on the network side. The boundaries separating traditional industries such as computers, telecommunications, office equipment, entertainment, media, broadcasting, and financial services are blurring. After more than a decade of development, with the new technologies in broadcasting, transmission, and mobile devices, consumer behavior is changing from passive to active participation, as manifested in Web 2.0. ICT is one of the most interesting industries that affect our daily life. To celebrate the 25th anniversary of the Communications Association of Hong Kong (CAHK), the Association conducted a series of interviews with the CEOs of the major players in Hong Kong to get a picture of the future of the ICT industry in the next five years. Although these CEOs have different perspectives and their companies face certain constraints, their viewpoints can generate valuable insights and effective corporate strategies to deal with convergence in the ICT industry. This study confines the scope of ICT to telecommunications, the Internet, and broadcasting the communications industry. We hope that the findings will make contributions in the academic field and provide practical applications. 2. Characteristics of the Convergence Market The communications industry is basically a network, or two-sided market. It functions as an intermediary (platform) between two user groups and provides infrastructure and rules that facilitate the transactions of these groups. In a traditional value chain, value moves from left to right: to the left is the company cost; to the right is revenue. In two-sided networks, however, value moves both left and right because the platform has a distinct group of users on each side (Eisenmann et al., 2006). The two groups are attached to each other, a phenomenon that economists call the network effect or externality; that is, the platform s value to any given user largely depends on the number of users on the other side, which is called a cross-side effect. In contrast, a same-side effect occurs when the increasing number of users on one side of the network affects the value to users on the same side. Network effects can be positive or negative depending on whether the joining of a new member increases or decreases the 1. 簡介 近年科技通訊業 (ICT) 的發 展趨勢之一可以 海納百川 來形容 歐盟執行委員會 (European Commission) 於 1997 年曾把這種技術凝聚力 定義為 以不同的網絡平台提 供本質類近的服務, 甚至是電 話 電視及個人電腦等消費產品 合而為一 因此用戶可以透過不同設 備配合不同媒體介面以互動方式獲取資訊 事實上, 自從電腦 通訊設備和電子產品走向數 碼時代, 這股凝聚趨勢已歷時十年之久, 在終端產品 方面結合了電腦 電話及電視功能, 而在網絡方面建 立一個能兼容的收發平台, 於是, 曾經清楚界定的行 業如電腦 電訊 辦公室設備 娛樂 媒體 廣播及 金融財經等已變得界線不清 經過逾十年的發展, 進 入 Web 2.0 時代, 反映了廣播 傳輸及流動產品科技 的急促進步, 令消費者的使用習慣從被動走向積極參 與,ICT 從此成為我們日常生活息息相關的行業 香港通訊業聯會 (Communications Association of Hong Kong, CAHK) 為慶祝成立 25 周年, 誠邀香港多 位電訊業界領導人物進行訪談, 探討香港科技通訊技 術未來五年的發展方向, 內容涉及不同範疇以及企業 面對的挑戰, 極具洞見, 亦可作為制定 ICT 凝聚趨勢 策略時的參考 本文主要針對通訊業 包括電訊 互 聯網及廣播事業, 謹為學術界作出一分綿力, 提供實 用的資訊 2. 凝聚市場的特色 by Dr. Hubert Chan Chairman of CAHK 供稿 : 香港通訊業聯會主席陳重義博士 通訊工業基本上是網絡, 或者雙邊界市場 作為兩組 用戶群的中介者 ( 平台 ), 它提供了通訊基建及守則 令用戶群進行交易 依據傳統的價值鍊, 價值由左 移至右 : 向左的是公司成本, 向右的是營業額 但雙 邊界網絡的價值則向左右兩邊移動, 原因是這種平台 的每個邊界都擁有獨特的用戶群 (Eisenmann et al., 2006) 而這兩個群組相輔相成, 這種現象被經濟學 家稱之為網絡效應或外圍效應 (externality); 換言之, 平台的價值對於一方用戶而言取決於另一方的用戶人 數, 也就是越界效應 (cross-side effect) 相反, 當一 方網絡用戶人數增加並影響了同一方用戶的價值時, 就會產生同界效應 網絡效應可能是正面也可能是負 value to existing users from the perspective of their own side. The cross-side effect is typically positive; that is, the value of owning the products and service increases as the number of owners increases. These network externalities can sometimes limit a company s ability to develop the market in the beginning stage because the markets for stand-alone products normally develop more quickly (Winer, 2004). Because network markets need a critical mass on both sides for success, a first mover has a distinct advantage over a late one and might even capture the entire market. Platforms serving two-sided networks are not a new phenomenon. Mature two-sided network industries are dominated by large players, as is the case for PC operating systems and in the credit card industry. However, platforms have become more prevalent because of advances in technology. New platforms have been developed and traditional businesses have been recreated as platforms. Examples of new platforms include Google, which links searchers and advertisers, and Xbox, which links players and game developers, while e-bay, which coordinates sellers and buyers, and Amazon, which links readers and authors, are examples of traditional auction house and book store evolution in terms of scope and scale, respectively. Kim and Mauborgne (October 2005, HBR) took e-bay as an example of the Blue Ocean Strategy, which makes competition irrelevant. It can attract a large volume of customers and generate value economics very rapidly. Network externality puts would-be imitators at an immediate and continuing cost disadvantage. However, the authors admitted that almost all blue oceans turn red eventually; hence, a company needs to monitor its value curve and reach out for another blue ocean when the value curve begins to converge with that of the competition. The ICT industry inherits the challenges, and certain risks, of network markets because of convergence. 1) Pricing the platform. The negative effect on the same side is not obvious until congestion appears. A network provider sometimes offers a very attractive price to attain an economy of scale in the beginning. If the response is overwhelming and quality declines because of over congestion, then the effect becomes negative. In the cross-side effect scenario, two-sided networks have a subsidy side, a group of users, who, when attracted in volume, are highly valued by users on the other side, the money side (Eisenmann et al., 2006). The number of subsidy side users is crucial to developing a strong network effect and thus the subsidy side is required to pay less as an independent market, whereas the money side pays more than it would as an independent market. The challenge of the platform provider is to determine the degree of subsidization on the one side and the premium that the other side is willing to pay for the privilege of accessing it. Consumers become accustomed to obtaining information from the World Wide Web (www) or enjoying free TV programs. The Korean experience in mobile TV found that both free-to-air and some niche channels are required. This is the basic cable model in which subscription is necessary to pay for expensive gap-filler networks. 2) Winner-take-all dynamics. When two networks start out the same size but random or non-random factors cause one of them to become larger and eventually dominate the whole market, this is called a winner-take-all market (Shapiro and Varian, 1999). A network provider must decide whether to share the network with rivals or fight to the death. The networked market is likely to be served by a single platform if multihoming costs are 面, 視乎新加入的成員是否令所屬邊界的現有用戶更有價值 越界效應通常都是正面的, 擁有產品及服務的價值會隨着擁有者數目上升而遞增 這類網絡外圍效應有時候反而限制了公司早期在開發市場的能力, 這是因為獨立產品更容易搶佔市場 (Winer, 2004) 由於網絡市場依賴兩個邊界的用戶數量 (critical mass) 來決定成敗, 而率先進入市場的企業比後來者享有優勢, 甚至可以獨佔整個市場 以平台來服務雙邊界網絡並非新鮮事, 成熟的雙邊界網絡工業大多被大型企業佔據, 例如 PC 操作系統或信用咭行業便是 然而, 這種平台因為科技的發展而再度抬頭, 新的平台出現, 傳統行業成為平台 新平台如 Google 撮合了搜尋者和廣告商 ;Xbox 撮合了遊戲玩家和設計商 ;e-bay 撮合了賣家和買家 ;Amazon 撮合了作家和讀者 ; 以上種種都是傳統拍賣行和書店從營業方式到規模的演變 Kim 和 Mauborgne (October 2005, HBR) 在其名著 藍海策略 中引用 e-bay 作為例子, 認為競爭亳無意義, 這項策略可以迅速吸引大量客戶並造就價值經濟, 網絡外圍效應令一些仿傚者隨時面對接二連三成本失利 可是, 連作者自己都承認幾乎所有的藍海最終都會變成紅海, 因此, 企業必須監控好價值變數, 當競爭令價值出現變數時, 得立即尋求其他藍海 ICT 業界因凝聚趨勢而承擔了網絡市場的挑戰和風險 1) 為平台定價 同一邊界的負面效果要直到出現擁擠才顯現出來 網絡供應可能在初期以優惠價格來達到經濟效益, 假如反應過於熱烈令質素下降, 就會出現負面效應 在越界效應的情況下, 雙邊界網絡通常都有 補充邊界, 也就是當其中一個邊界的用戶增加到一定數目時, 就會被另一邊界的用戶予以更高的價值, 亦即是 金錢邊界 (money side) (Eisenmann et al., 2006) 互補邊界的用戶極為關鍵, 他們有助於發展網絡效應, 因此他們付出相對較低的代價來成為獨立市場, 反之金錢邊界一方就得付出更高代價來成為獨立市場 對於平台供應商而言, 最大的挑戰莫過於決定一方邊界的補充程度, 以及另一方為了加入而願意付出的程度 現今消費者已經習慣從互聯網 (World Wide Web, www) 上獲得資訊甚至收看免費電視節目, 韓國的流動電視經驗是免費和特備頻道得兩者兼有, 訂戶得為這種特設的網絡服務付出高昂收費, 這就是基本有線服務的模式 電.訊.業.概.覽43 42

2 high for more than one platform on the user sides, network effects are positive and strong, and there are no strong preferences for special features from either side of users. When this is the case, the provider has to decide to fight for or share the network. In the case of telecommunications voice services, although there is no strong preference for any particular network, the multihoming cost is low; hence, service providers can coexist with a low profit margin. In the case of pay TV, the multihoming cost is relatively high and limited by available leisure time, and there is a strong preference for special programs by individuals; again, several operators can coexist. 2) 大獲全勝 式情勢 當兩個網絡以相同的規模同時 出台, 其中一個網絡在偶然或非偶然因素下增強繼 5) Technological uncertainty. Network markets always deal with the issue of standardization, which determines the compatibility among different products and services. Products in network markets can take advantage of indirect network externalities if there is a variety of complementary products. A well-known example is the battle in the video recorder market. JVC licensed the technology to encourage the supply of content whereas Sony was reluctant to do so. The greater availability of films in VHS was one of the major reasons why this format dominated the market, beating out the Betamax format. Similarly, the initial mobile phone operating systems were proprietary; that is, the mobile phone manufacturers controlled all of the hardware and software. These platform providers were challenged by the formation of Symbian in The company started out with the goal of developing an open operating system for existing and nextgeneration interactive multimedia devices. Microsoft also made a strategic move in 1999, with the ultimate goal of transforming the Windows operating system (OS) into a standard platform for a new generation of Web-based services on both high-speed fixed lines and mobile telephone networks. Apple and Google joined in the battle in One of the reasons for opening up the standard or licensing requirements is to acquire an early installed base to bring a product or technology up to an industrial standard (Farell and Saloner, 1985; Katz and Shapiro, 1985). Both companies realized that competition to own the standard was competition for the market (Teece, 1986, 2006). Open platform providers can also invite more third-party developers when developing complementary products. In making their decisions, phone manufacturers and third-party developers have to make a bet on which OS will ultimately dominate the market. 5) 科技的不明朗因素 網絡市場經常處理標準化問 題, 令產品和服務可以彼此兼容 假如市面有多種 而主導整個市場, 這就是所謂的 大獲全勝 式市 補充產品供應, 網絡市場中的產品就可以善用非直 場 (Shapiro 和 Varian, 1999) 這時候網絡供應商 接網絡外圍條件 其中最為人熟悉的例子就是視頻 得決定跟對手共享網絡還是堅守到最後 假如對一 錄像市場 JVC 曾將技術對外授權, 以鼓勵內容供 方邊界用戶而言因為需要多於一個平台而令多重專 應, 此舉卻對 Sony 欠吸引力, 這是由於 VHS 制式 線 (multihoming) 成本上升, 那麼網絡市場最好只 的電影數量繁多令這個制式雄霸市場, 遠遠拋離 維持一個平台, 網絡效應變得正面和強大, 任何邊 對手 Betamax 制式 同樣, 早期的流動電話操作系 3) The threat of envelopment. Technological convergence creates 界的用戶也不會特別偏好某些獨特功能 這種情況 統都屬於專利資源, 由製造商操控所有軟件和硬 economies of scope that cut across formerly separate markets 下, 供應商得決定是要爭取網絡還是共享網絡 以 件, 直至 1998 年平台供應商受到 Symbian 面世的 and provides cross-market incentives (Katz, 1996). The regulatory 電訊業的話音服務為例, 雖然用戶不會偏好某個網 挑戰,Symbian 開發商的目標是要為現有甚至未來 changes leading to a unified license regime facilitate these incentives. In addition, platform providers frequently have 絡, 多重專線成本低令服務供應商在低邊際利潤情 的互動多媒體產品提供一個開放共享的操作平台 overlapping user bases. There is a danger when rivals offer the 況下仍能並存 至於收費電視的情況是由於多重專 微軟於 1999 年亦推行策略性計劃, 終極目標是把 same functionality as part of a multiplatform bundle, as a lower 線成本高, 消閑時段有限, 令觀眾偏好特備節目, Windows OS 引用於高速固網及流動網絡的上網服 total cost can be offered to the money side. This phenomenon is becoming common because of convergence, which is being 營運商因而得以並存 務 Apple 及 Google 於 2007 年加入戰陣, 開放標準 accelerated by the rapid evolution in technology. There are 和授權的其中一個主因是爭取在初期讓產品或技 3) 包絡威脅 (The threat of envelopment) 科技的凝 two types of convergence convergence in substitutes and 術獲得公認, 甚至成為工業標準 (Farell 和 Saloner, convergence in complements (Greenstein and Khanna, 1997). 聚力產生了一種新經濟環境, 打通了以往獨立存在 1985;Katz 和 Shapiro, 1985), 因此兩家企業都 The former appears when two product classes start to share 的市場而提供了跨市場才有的優勢 (Katz, 1996) interchangeable features whereas the latter 了解這場工業標準之戰同樣是市場之爭 (Teece, 業內守則的變更造就了聯營授權也助長了這些優 appears when two product classes work better 1986, 2006) 此外, 開放平台的供應商還可以邀 together than by themselves or 勢 此外, 平台供應商總有重疊的用戶群, 由於更請更多第三方開發商加入研發附屬產品的行列, 而 complement each other. The 低的總成本會流向金錢邊界, 對手間在多元平台的 threat of envelopment occurs 在定下決策前, 電話製造商及第三方開發商都得賭結合式服務提供大同小異的功能時, 就會出現風 with convergence in substitutes. 上哪一個 OS 將成為市場主導 Typical examples are the 險 這種現象當科技加速演進繼而加強凝聚力時更 In the service market, major players always try to come up with a multifunction mobile 見普遍 現時有兩種凝聚情況 取締者的凝聚及 common standard through forums or international organizations 在服務市場中, 主要業者都會透過工業論壇或國 phone replacing the such as the Global System for Mobile Communications (originally 互補者的凝聚 (Greenstein 和 Khanna, 1997) 前際組織來決定共享標準, 例如全球移動通信系統 low-end camera, MP3 the Groupe Spéciale Mobile) (GSM), WiMAX forums, and the player, and radio. The 者的現象是當兩個產品開始出現通用的功能, 後者 International Telecommunication Union (ITU). Regardless of the (GSM)( 前身是 Groupe Spéciale Mobile) voice-over-internet 是當兩個產品合作或互補時會比獨立營運更有利 quality of the technology, the more a technology is employed, WiMAX 論壇及國際電信聯盟 (ITU) 等 姑勿論某項 Protocol (VoIP) feature the greater will be its attraction relative to the alternatives. This is 當取締者式凝聚出現時會導致包絡的威脅, 最典型技術優劣, 技術越受重用, 就會擁有更多的採納機 in broadband services due to the cumulative nature of technical advances, the learning can substitute for 的例子就是多功能流動電話取締低檔次相機 MP3 of both producers and consumers, and network externalities 會, 主要是由於技術知識的積累 生產商和消費者 conventional analogue 及收音機, 寬頻提供的 VoIP 取代傳統的模擬固網 (Arthur, 1989). If a government adopts a technology-neutral 的學習過程和網絡的外圍因素等 (Arthur, 1989) fixed-line service. policy, then new entrants have to choose a technology in view of 服務 假如政府採取科技中立政策, 新加入的業者在選擇 4) Market uncertainty. The its potential, the availability of suppliers, its roaming capability, communications industry is always coming out with radical new 4) 市場的不確定性 通訊市場經常會推出煥然一新的 and applications. The situation is even more complicated when a 技術時必須衡量其潛力 供應商 漫遊能力以及應 products, such as high-speed downlink packet access (HSDPA), country such as China advocates its own standard which is not 用程式技術 更複雜的情況是當一個地區像中國大產品, 例如高速網絡覆蓋 (HSDPA) 流動電視 mobile TV, worldwide interoperability for microwave access fully internationally compatible. 陸推行自己一套標準, 而且並未為世界各地兼容 (WiMAX), and 3D barcodes, rather than incremental innovations. worldwide interoperability for microwave access 6) Hugh upfront investment. The diffusion of a new innovation is Concept testing may not be suitable to predict mass-market (WiMAX) 及 3D 條碼等 由於消費者對於完全嶄新 determined by four main factors: substitution economics, change 6) 龐大的前線投資 一項新發明的分散取決於四大 acceptance because consumers are not familiar with radical 的科技未必了解, 加上欠缺外圍因素例如足以左右 in user behavior, technology, and infrastructure (Collis et al., 1997). 因素 : 替代經濟 (substitution economics) 用戶 innovations and because of the absence of external factors, such Substitution economics refers to the economic benefit incurred. as social influences, which affect consumer behavior (Moore, 消費者行為的社會氣候等條件, 因此不能單純以概 Change in user behavior depends on the ease of use and 行為改變 科技及基建 (Collis et al., 1997) 替代 1988). In addition, it is difficult to forecast demand because no 念來預測大眾市場的接受程度 (Moore, 1988), 此 usefulness, which is consistent with technology acceptance theory 經濟是指經濟利益, 用戶行為會因應使用方法的簡 historical data are available. The justification of the investment 外, 基於往績資料欠奉, 也未能預計市場需求, 對 (Davis, 1989) and diffusion theory (Rogers, 1962). Technology 便和使用量而改變, 當然也要視乎技術的接受程度 amount is based on presumed need (Bores et al., 2003). Market with a stable standard minimizes consumer investment risk. The forecasting has to take into account competitor response. For 於投資的評估只能按預計的需求來衡量 (Bores et host infrastructure provides ubiquitous access to the service or (Davis, 1989) 以及分散情況 (Rogers, 1962) 而 example, when third generation (3G) operators introduced al., 2003), 而且競爭對手的對策也需要包括在市 product. The coverage must be reasonably good for consumers 技術如能標準化則減低了消費者投資風險, 主基建 the high-speed mobile data service HSDPA, two-and-a-half 場預測的範圍內 例如當 3G 營運商推出高速流動 to be willing to try it out. In the case of service provision, costs can 讓服務及產品更普及化, 而覆蓋範圍必須足以吸引 generation (2.5G) operators reacted with an economical flat-rate involve a substantial license fee, expensive equipment, and a high general package radio service (GPRS) package, which affected 數據服務高速網絡覆蓋時,2.5G 的營運商馬上以劃 rental cost for transmission. Complementary resources such as 消費者願意嘗試採用 對服務而言, 成本還包括了 the diffusion rate of HSDPA. However, there are success cases. 一收費提供 GPRS 優惠, 對高速網絡覆蓋定價做成 terminals, a billing system, and promotion are also required before 實際的牌照費 昂貴的設備及傳輸租金等 其他額 Apple did not conduct market research before creating itunes 威脅 至於成功例子則有 Apple 在發展 itunes 音樂 a critical mass is created. 外資源如終端機 帳目系統及宣傳推廣等也是面對 Music Store. They developed this technology because they thought it would be great to be able to buy music electronically, 站前並未進行市場調查, 他們開發這項技術的目的大眾市場必備條件 and had no intention of redefining the music industry (Morris, 純粹認為購買數碼音樂是非常好的點子, 並未打算 2008). 改革音樂工業 (Morris, 2008).訊.業.概.覽45

3 Company CEO/MD/GM Predictions China Mobile Peoples Telephone Company ( PCCW ( Charles G. Henshaw Director and CEO Alexander A. Arena Group Managing Director Mobile Internet is becoming the killer application; everything is over Internet Protocol (IP). A terminal is becoming a onedevice driver. Understanding users' needs and responding to them through cutting-edge technologies such as how to enrich content and enhance interactivity in services. Government policies have to keep in pace with market development for the overall benefit of the public and for the purpose of strengthening Hong Kong s leadership. 公司 中國移動萬眾電話有限公司 ( 電訊盈科有限公司 ( 行政總裁 / 行政總監 / 總經理 Charles G. Henshaw 行政總裁 Alexander A. Arena 集團行政總裁 預測 流動應用日漸成為不可或缺的工具, 所有功能有賴互聯網協定 (Internet Protocol, 簡稱 IP) 得以順利操作 而產品趨向集多功能於一身 了解用戶需要, 並以先進科技回應需求 例如如何令服務內容更豐富, 增加互動程度 政府推出的措施必須緊貼市場發展步伐, 以公眾利益為大前題, 並鞏固香港的業界領先地位 電.訊.業.概.覽47 3. Current status of the Communications Industry Hong Kong was ranked number one in 2002 in the mobile/ Internet index of the ITU ( HYPERLINK " publications/sales/mobileinternet/" itu.int/mobileinternet). The Index covers 26 variables that are sorted into three groups: infrastructure, usage, and market structure. In 2008, the number of mobile service subscribers has risen to almost 10 million, representing one of the highest penetration rates in the world at about 150% with five operators. Other than basic voice services, data services such as short messaging, mobile Internet services, all sorts of download services, multimedia services, video call services, and mobile TV services are commonly available anywhere, anytime, and are very popular among consumers. With 3G networks being upgraded with HSDPA technology and HSDPA-enabled services being introduced by service providers, 3G service customers can experience mobile data services at a higher speed, up to 3.6 Mbps (OFTA, 2007). Broadband Internet traffic volume has exceeded 800,000 terabits (OFTA, 2007), and the penetration rate of pay TV reached 80% of households in 2007 (refer to Appendix A for the details of the Hong Kong ICT market). A number of mergers and acquisitions have taken place in Hong Kong, including PCCW acquiring Sunday in September 2005, China Mobile acquiring Peoples in March 2006, and CSL merging with New World Mobility in March Mobile number portability has been in effect since 1999, and switching barriers are relatively low except for the contractual obligation between the subscriber and service provider. Indeed, voice services in mobile and fixed networks and Internet data services are nearly identical. In addition, the rapid advancement and introduction of new technologies make these kinds of services perishable. The fixed costs are high whereas the marginal cost is low. As such, there is intense pressure on service providers to cut prices below the average costs while still making some contribution to covering fixed costs. The pay TV market is dominated by now, TVB, and icable. As WiMAX and mobile TV licenses are going to be issued at end of 2008 and beginning of 2009, respectively, new entrants are coming in and the industry structure will be transformed. 3. 通訊工業的現況 根據 ITU 資料顯示, 香港於 2002 年在流動通訊及互聯網市場名列前茅 (HYPERLINK " int/osg/spu/publications/sales/mobileinternet/" itu. int/mobileinternet), 這項指標是根據 26 個項目進行評估, 可簡單歸納為三大類別 : 基建 用量及市場架構 2008 年流動通訊服務用戶增加至 1,000 萬, 五家營運商浸透率達 150%, 佔全球首位 消費者除了可以隨時隨地享用基本話音服務, 還有數據服務如短訊 流動上網服務 各種下載功能 多媒體服務 視頻通話服務及流動電視等 3G 網絡隨着高速網絡覆蓋技術升級, 加上服務供應商提供備有高速網絡覆蓋的服務, 3G 用戶可以享受以 3.6 Mbps 高速傳輸的流動數據服務 (OFTA, 2007) 寬頻上網的用量超過 800,000TB (OFTA, 2007),2007 年收費電視家庭浸透率達 80% ( 參考香港 ICT 市場附件 A). 另有幾項併購行動, 例如 PCCW 於 2005 年 9 月收購 Sunday, 中國移動於 2006 年 3 月收購萬眾,CSL 在 2006 年 3 月收購新世界傳動網等 1999 年起流動電話用戶可以保留號碼轉換營運商, 除了受雙方合約限制外, 一般轉換過程非常順利 事實上, 無論是流動話音服務 固網甚至互聯網數據服務都大同小異, 此外, 科技的迅速發展令這些服務漸漸式微, 導致既定成本高而邊際利潤低, 因此令服務供應商面對壓力, 必須在減價之餘尋找彌補既有成本的開支 收費電視目前由 now TVB 及 icable 三分天下 當 WiMAX 及流動電視牌照分別於 2008 年底及 2009 年初推出後, 將有新業者加入市場令業界結構可能出現變動 HK CSL ( Nokia (HK) ( i-cable Communications ( Citic 1616 Holdings ( Television Broadcasts ( Asia Television ( index.html) SmarTone Telecommunications Holdings ( hk) Sony Ericsson Mobile C o m m u n i c a t i o n s International AB ( com) City Telecom (HK) ( Tarek A. Robbiati CEO Bruce Lam General Manager Stephen T. H. Ng Chairman and CEO Norman Yuen CEO S. K. Cheong General Manager- Broadcasting T. K. Ho Director and COO Douglas Li CEO Marisa Kwok General Manager, Hong Kong and Macau Ricky Wong Chairman Service operators fulfill the needs of customers through the network, particularly data communications. Wireless technology is the best media to provide mobility and ubiquitous services. A mobile phone is not simply a communication device. It will be an indispensable tool in the world of the Internet. Convergence between broadcasting and telecommunications. Two-way interactive communication and customers as content providers. Hong Kong may lose its leading telecom position in the region because of the market size constraint and no application breakthroughs. Convergence will happen on different levels. A more open market policy in the future would lead to more competitors, stimulating new ideas and thus bringing growth to the industry. The convergence of mobile and Internet will further break down the traditional boundaries in the telecommunications market. The demand for more innovative multimedia services will continue to be one of the key market drives. Rapid growth in telecommunications technology will help Hong Kong s role in the international marketplace. Hong Kong is heading towards being a facility base; small companies might not be able to survive and thus there will be less creativity in the industry. 香港移動通訊有限公司 ( 諾基亞 ( 香港 ) 有限公司 ( 有線寬頻通訊有限公司 ( 中信 1616 集團 ( 電視廣播有限公司 ( 亞洲電視 ( index.html) 數碼通電訊集團有限公司 ( 新力愛立信移動通信公司 ( 城市電訊 ( 香港 ) 有限公司 ( Tarek A. Robbiati 行政總裁 林國誠總經理 吳天海主席及行政總裁 阮紀堂行政總裁 鄭善強總經理 何定國董事及營運總裁 黎大鈞行政總裁 郭婉雯總經理 ( 香港及澳門 ) 王維基集團主席 透過通訊網絡為客戶提供所需服務, 尤其是資訊服務 無線技術能推動流動市場, 令客戶隨時隨地享用服務 流動電話不只是通訊產品, 它還是互聯網世界的必備工具 廣播形式和通訊模式共冶一爐 雙向的互動通訊並由客戶自行提供內容 香港受限於市場規模以及停滯不前的應用技術, 有可能失去區內的通訊市場領先地位 各種技術和功能將在不同層面互相整合 未來市場更見開放, 吸引更多競爭對手, 有助激勵創見, 推動業界發展 流動通訊與互聯網的凝聚日漸打破電訊市場的傳統框架, 令更具創意的多媒體服務繼續成為市場的主要動力之一 電訊技術的急速發展有利香港在國際市場的地位 香港日漸成為設備基地, 令小型企業難以經營, 亦令業內創意日益見拙 4. Future of the Communications Industry Nobody can predict the future of a market, especially for a fastmoving industry such as ICT. Those are able to correctly foresee the future can gain an important head start and obtain a competitive advantage, whereas those that cannot may be seriously threatened by the competitive position of the former. This section summarizes the predictions given by the CEOs on the future of the ICT industry. 4. 通訊業的前景 沒有人可以掌握市場的前景, 尤其是發展急促的 ICT 工業 能準確地預見市場未來的企業就能掌握先機, 享有競爭優勢, 反之則受這些成功企業的威脅 以下列表總結了各大業界 CEO 對 ICT 工業未來的發展預測 China Telecom (HK) International ( com.hk) Hutchison Telecommunications (Hong Kong) ( Ma Yi Min CEO Peter Wong CEO The merging of fixed and wireless networks will destroy the possibility of monopolies and oligopolies. Technological advancement, leading to more diverse and efficient ways of communications, is shortening the distance among people across the world. 中國電信 ( 香港 ) 國際有限公司 ( hk) 和記電訊 ( 香港 ) 有限公司 ( 馬益民行政總裁 黃景輝行政總裁 固網和無線網絡日漸融和, 杜絕市場被壟斷及寡佔的機會 科技的進步促進更多元化 更有效的通訊方式, 縮短了世界上人與人之間的距離 46

4 5. Historical Overview of Competitive Advantages in Strategic Management 5. 回顧策略管理的競爭優勢 introduced an analytical tool the Five Forces Model, strategic chain framework) 以及綜觀競爭策略(generic group theory, the value chain framework, and generic competitive 波特 (Porter, 2006) 指出企業最常犯的錯誤就是希望 competitive strategies) 等, 一如 60 年代的作風, 把 strategies, changing the area of interest from internal processes, 電Porter (2006) posited that one of the great mistakes that have 採納一個放諸世界皆準的策略, 這種情況在通訊業更 as in the early 1960s, to the external industry structure, competitive 大眾的焦點從內部轉移到外部的業界結構 業內競爭 been made over and over again by companies is the attempt to position in the industry, and the use of cost and differentiation as the apply a universal strategy. This is particularly true in view of the 見普遍, 其中網絡市場的最佳寫照就是電子商務, 它情況 以及透過成本和市場區分作為爭取競爭優勢 means to gain competitive advantages. In the mid-1980s, the focal challenges faced by the communications industry, as mentioned 是凝聚了分銷渠道和資訊的工業 Amit 和 Zott (2001) 的工具 80 年代中期, 研究的焦點再次回到組織經 point of research swung back to organizational economics such above. An illustration in network markets is e-business, which is 探索電子商務中創造價值的理論基礎, 得出的結論是 as transaction cost economics (TCE), giving rise to agency theory. 濟, 例如交易成本經濟 (transaction cost economics, converging in term of distribution channels and content. Amit and Organizational economics examined the firm environment interface Zott (2001) explored the theoretical foundations of value creation 沒有單一家企業或策略管理足以完整地解釋這種創造 TCE), 於是產生了代理理論 (agency theory) 組織 using a contractual or exchange-based approach. Transaction cost in e-business and suggested that no single entrepreneurship or 價值 他們建議四個相關的角度作為評估參考 : 效率 經濟以合約外包或互惠條件來評估企業的環境 學者 efficiency was proposed via different strategies that included vertical strategic management theory can fully explain value creation. They 補充條件 lock-in 及新鮮感 他們建議對電子商務甚 integration, related and unrelated diversification, and the hybrid 建議交易成本的效益可透過不同策略來達成, 包括縱 proposed four interdependent dimensions for evaluation: efficiency, form of organizations (Hoskisson et al., 1999). Other frequently cited complementarities, lock-in, and novelty. They suggested that 至緊密的高度連網的市場進行研究, 透過綜合進路結向整合 增加相關或非相關的類別, 以及 混合 形式 works in the economics stream in the periods include research on e-business and, more generally, on competition in highly 合了策略和企業的觀點, 再考慮不同的策略配合不同的組織 (Hoskisson et al., 1999) 期間經 studies addressing corporate strategy-product diversification, networked markets, would benefit from an integrative approach that 的環境以及業務的發展階段 此外, 市場分析 工業 evolutionary economics, resource dependency, and behavioral 濟主流經常引用的理論還包括企業策略 - 產品類別擴展 combines both strategy and entrepreneurship perspectives, and theory of the firm (Hitt, 2005). In the 1990s, the resource-based view that different strategies should be applied in different scenarios and 架構分析及價值鍊等都只能針對清晰界定的市場, 卻的研究 漸進式經濟 資源依賴性以及企業的行為理 (RBV) of the firm dominated the field of strategic management. It different stages in the course of corporate development. In addition, 未必適用於未來市場 (Hamel 和 Prahalad, 1994) 未論等 (Hitt, 2005) 踏入 90 年代, 以企業的資源為基 diverted attention from external industry sources to firms internal segmentation analysis, industry structure analysis, and value chain 來的競爭是機會佔有率的競爭, 未來機會佔有率越高 strengths and weaknesses relative to their external opportunities 礎的觀點 (resource-based view, RBV) 幾乎主導了 analysis are eminently useful in the context of a clearly defined and threats, which in turn gave insights into effective management market but not in the case of a future market (Hamel and Prahalad, 表示企業越是處於充滿商機的環境, 比市場佔有率更整個策略管理概念 它把業界的注意力從外部的工業 of internal resources to create competitive advantages. Building 1994). Competition for the future is competition for opportunity share, 重要 簡而言之, 我們要為未來制訂策略目標, 又得資源引導去關注 足以影響外來機遇和威脅的企業內 on the RBV are strategic leadership theories, strategic decision that is, to maximize the share of future opportunities that a company 回首目前的任務 theory and the knowledge-based theory of the firm (Hoskisson et 部專長和弱點, 繼而讓企業深入了解如何善用內部資 could potentially access within a broad opportunity arena, rather al., 1999). In addition, strategic management research approaches 源管理來產生競爭優勢 在 RBV 基礎上建立的是企業 than market share. Specifically, we need strategies with 多年以來, 策略管理的發展方向 include competence-based strategic management (Sanchez goals for the future and work backward to the present, 的策略領導理論 決策理論和知識型理論 (Hoskisson as we do in chess. 必須靈活應變來配合多變的市 and Heene, 1997), competitive strategy, corporate governance, international strategy, and dynamic capability theories (Hitt, 2005). et al., 1999) 此外, 策略管理的研究還包括了才幹 The development and direction of strategic 場和營運模式 事實上, 策略 Emerging areas of research interest include network strategies 策略管理 (Sanchez 和 Heene, 1997) 競爭策略 公 management is dynamic because of the everchanging business markets and models over the 管理的歷史可以追溯至公元前 (Gulati et al., 2000), collaborative approaches (Wonglimpiyarat, 司管治 國際策略及應變力理論等 (Hitt, 2005) 而其 320 年的 孫子兵法, 書中 2005), which emphasize the important role of networks and inter-firm years. In fact, the history of strategy management ties, the Blue Ocean Strategy (Kim and Mauborgne, 2005), which 中引發研究的綜合題材還包括網絡策略 (Gulati et al., can be dated back to as early as 320 BC to the 提出取決戰略的七大要點, involves deriving full advantage from developing markets where 2000) 和協作進路 (Wonglimpiyarat, 2005), 都是強 famous Chinese scholar Sun Tzu and his work, 包括統治者的影響力 將領 there is little or no competition, and exploiting and protecting nonrival markets by property rights, patents, and high cost of market 調網絡角色的重要性和企業內部的相關協調性, 而藍 The Art of War. Sun Tzu advocated the appraisal 才能 氣候和地形優勢 法 of seven dimensions when making a strategic entry, and the platform strategy, which investigates the interrelation 海策略 (Kim 和 Mauborgne, 2005) 則以開發一個極少 decision in the battlefield. These dimensions are: 例和指令的執行 軍隊陣 between a firm to gain profit from its technological advancement and 甚至無競爭的市場來維持優勢, 並藉着產權 商標權 moral influence of the ruler, ability of the general, 容 要員訓練 賞罰分明 the reinforcement of an appropriate regime to protect intellectual 及高昂的市場開發成本和平台策略等來善用和保護這 advantages of climate and terrain, execution of 等, 雖說這七大要訣是用 property rights (West, 2003). laws and instructions, numerical strength of 片無爭淨土, 同時探究企業從先進技術中獲利跟採取 In the field of strategic management, researchers and scholars troops, training of officers and men, and 於調兵遣將的戰略部署, seek to understand why firms differ in their conduct and profitability 適當措施保護知識產權之間的關聯 (West, 2003) administration of rewards and punishments. 但同樣適用於商場, 甚至 (Gulati et al., 2000), and how firms can improve their performance in Although the seven dimensions formed 跟波特提出的五大動力相 competitive interaction with other firms (Sanchez and Heene, 1997). 在策略管理的領域, 研究人員和學者都希望了解導 the prerequisites for strategic planning in Hence, different schools of thought, approaches, theories, warfare, they can be carried over into the 呼應 (1980) 孫子和波特都致企業作為和盈利參差的因素 (Gulati et al., and models have evolved to explain competitive business world and are in line with the Five 強調在戰事中必須爭取優勢, 2000), 以及企業如何能在競爭對手之間改善 advantage from the perspective of external Forces Model developed by Porter (1980). Sun Tzu 而波特的五大動力策略是要企業 在業界中 industry sources, transaction cost economics, 業績 (Sanchez 和 Heene, 1997) 因此, 不同 and Porter emphasize the importance of creating internal resources and capabilities, competitive edges on the battleground and in 找出一個在芸芸壓力下足以自衛的定位 (Porter, 學派的思想 進路 理論及模式等逐漸成型, collaborative efforts, the Blue Ocean Strategy, industry, respectively. The essence of Porter s five forces competitive 1980), 孫子則認為 假如已經執行佔優的策略, 也得藉以從外圍工業資源 交易成本經濟 內部資 and the Delta Model. Each of these theories strategy is to find a position in an industry where a company can 找出佔優的形勢才能相輔相乘 (Wee et al., 1991) is examined to obtain insights for the further 源及能力 協作力 藍海策略和三角洲模型來 best defend itself against competitive forces (Porter, 1980). Sun Tzu development of a strategic framework for a 詮釋競爭優勢 以上各種理論都能對網絡市場 observes, If an advantageous strategy is already adopted, there is 在策略管理發展初期的 60 年代, 學者大都專注於內部 network market. Appendix 1 summarizes still a need to create an advantageous situation so as to support its 的未來策略發展提供深入洞見, 附表 1 總結了每 accomplishment (Wee et al., 1991). 運作 企業特性以及管治能力, 例如決策程序 資訊 the advantages and limitations of each of them. 套理論的優劣之處 In the early development of strategic management in the 1960s, 處理的限制 權力和交際手腕 職權架構及管理者的 scholars focused on the internal processes, characteristics, and 角色等 工業組織 (Industrial organization, I/O) 最先 5.1 Porter s Generic Competitive Strategy and managerial capabilities of organizations such as decision-making 5.1 波特的綜觀競爭策略和五大競爭動力模式在 年代提出, 卻等到 80 年代初波特的著作面世 processes, information-processing limitations, power and coalitions, the Five Forces Competitive Model 波特 (1980) 的綜觀競爭策略是以兩項企業都可擁有 hierarchical structures, and the importance of management s 才受到關注, 成為舉足輕重的理論 波特總結出一套 Porter s (1980) generic competitive strategy is based on two basic 的條件為基礎 - 低成本和市場區分, 來倡議三個綜觀 role. Industrial organization (I/O) economics was first advocated 結構 - 行為 - 表現的系統理論, 又倡導一套分析評估方 types of competitive advantages a firm can possess, low cost and in the 1950s and 1960s but was not recognized as an influential differentiation, to advocate three generic strategies: cost leadership, 策略 : 成本控制 市場區分和業務重點 這裏的重法 - 五大動力 (Five Forces Model), 當中的策略小 theory until the works of Porter appeared in the early 1980s. Porter differentiation, and focus. Focus has two variants: cost focus and 點可分為兩種, 成本重點和區分重點 這些策略的 summarized the structure-conduct-performance paradigm and 組理論 (strategic group theory) 價值鍊架構(value differentiation focus. The goal of these strategies is to generate 目標就是要令競爭優勢持之以恆, 繼而令企業的表 sustainable competitive advantages which in turn will contribute to 48 INDUSTRY OVERVIEW.訊.業.概.覽49

5 the above-average performance of a firm compared to its competitors in the industry (Hoskisson et al., 1999). A firm should pursue a cost leadership strategy if it competes industry-wide and has low cost advantages (Wee et al., 1991). To make the cost leadership strategy feasible, the firm should impose tight cost control, economies of scale, proprietary technology, and preferential access to raw materials to keep costs low. Additionally, the parity and proximity of differentiation should not be overlooked, which means the product quality should be equal to or above the industry average and acceptable 現突出, 在業界凌駕競爭對手 (Hoskisson et al., 1999) 企業假如面對的是來自整個業界的競爭, relations with competitors. It aims to capture early bird profit and deter rivals from entering into the market, such as the standard competition in the high-technology (high-tech) product market, thus eliminating possible collaborative benefits. Finally, the model was built on the existing technologies and products that a firm had, yet it neglects active and dynamic socioeconomic factors such as the internal capacities/resources of the firm, which are vital to bringing the competitive strategy to life. Sanchez and Heene (1997) also pointed out the polarization between the theoretical developments of the internal behavioral and organizational perspective and external competitive strategy perspective. 潤, 減少競爭對手加入市場, 這是高端科技產品市場 常見的典型競爭模式, 削弱了彼此協作的利益 最 電就必須制訂出色的成本管理策略並享有低成本後, 這項模式建基在企業現有的科技和產品上, 忽視的優勢 (Wee et al., 1991) 成本管理策略包括變化多端的社會經濟因素, 例如企業的內部能力和資嚴緊的成本控制 擴充經濟效益規模 專利技源會影響競爭策略的實際執行力 Sanchez 和 Heene 術及獲取資源的簡便途徑等 此外, 市場區 (1997) 也指出內部行為和企業前景與外部競爭策略分的平衡和周邊條件也不容忽視, 這意味着前景之間理論發展的極端化 產品質素必須平均甚至超越業界水準, 並獲 I/O 經濟在 80 年代抬頭, 卻一直被研究指為傳統 單方 得客戶接受 這樣令減價程度不會削弱成本 I/O economics was first recognized in the 1980s but only in research 面 集中工業架構及策略組, 因此源自 I/O 經濟的競爭 優勢和市場佔有率增加所帶來的好處 當企 into traditional, one-sided, concentrated industry structures and 策略不獲處於多變的虛據雙邊界市場所採納, 基於網 * # 業決定採用定位區分而其特有產品又甚受歡 strategic groups; hence, the competitive strategies derived from I/O economics may not be adaptable to the emerging virtual and twosided market. Because of network externalities, the value to users 一個邊界的用戶人數來決定, 因此平台供應商得盡快絡的外圍條件, 價值對一個邊界的用戶而言是要靠另迎時, 企業就可以利用較高定價來達到競爭 to customers. This ensures that the depth of the price discount does 優勢 然而, 進行定位區分的企業必須確定其透過較 on one side depends on the number of users on the other side, and not offset the benefits of cost advantages and the expanded market 增加消費者人數, 價格定位也就成為關鍵, 有別於單高定價所獲競爭利益超出因長期進行區分策略而涉及 platform providers need to build up large customer bases rapidly. share. When a firm chooses to be a differentiator and the unique Price allocation is crucial because the value chain involves not 邊界市場, 價值鍊涉及的不只是供應商成本, 還包括 product has wide appeal, the firm is able to achieve a competitive 的額外成本 換言之, 企業亦需要同時觀察競爭對手 simply cost from the supplier and revenue from the buyers, as in the 來自買家的營業額 advantage with a premium price. However, a differentiator should 的成本均分和周邊條件 至於重點策略主要是針對業 one-sided market. ensure that the competitive gain from the premium price is always 內較集中的競爭條件, 當企業在目標區分市場中採用 higher than the extra cost incurred in being unique to survive longterm using the differentiation strategy. In other words, cost parity 成本重點策略, 就要爭取成本優勢 ; 採用區分重點策 5.2 Transaction Cost Economics (TCE) 5.2 交易成本經濟 and proximity relative to its competitors should be observed. The 略就是要爭取區分優勢, 重點策略人員關注的是某種 Williamson (1983) posited that a transaction occurs when a good Williamson (1983) 指出交易的發生是一件貨品或服務 focus strategy rests on the choice of a narrow competitive scope or service is transferred across a technologically separable 透過技術性分割的界面轉移時, 當一組處理過程或組成本行為和買家在某個特定市場中的特別需要 但要 within an industry. A firm seeks a cost/differentiation advantage interface, and that where one stage of processing or assembly 合活動完結時, 另一組又再開始 TCE 的基本原則是 in a target segment using cost/differentiation focus strategies, 注意的是假如企業未能清楚地採納成本還是區分策略, activity terminates, the other begins. The basic principle of TCE is respectively. Focusers address the unique cost behavior and special 反會置身兩者之間而吃力不討好, 結果企業在毫無競 that people like to conduct business in the most economical way. 人們總是以最經濟的方式來經營業務, 在某些情況下 needs of the buyers in specific segments. However, firms that fail Transaction costs may be lower if the transaction takes place in an 在開放市場中交易會導致交易成本降低, 又或是由管爭優勢情況下表現差強人意, 甚至失利於成本對手 to associate themselves with either a cost or differentiation strategy open market in some circumstances, or if a manager coordinates 理人員主導交易 Amit 和 Zott(2001) 強調交易成本理 tend to get stuck in the middle. Consequently, they compete 區分策略者和重點對手 (Porter, 1980, 1985) the transaction (hierarchy) in another situation. Amit and Zott with below-average performance as they possess no competitive (2001) emphasized that transaction cost theory is concerned with 論只是關注在某個特定的經濟環境下進行交易時如何 advantages and are at a disadvantage compared to the cost leader, 有人質疑在多變的市場中以綜觀策略維持優勢的可 explaining the choice of the most efficient governance form given a 解釋最有效的管治形式 交易的關鍵條件會左右抉擇 differentiators, and focusers (Porter, 1980, 1985). 行性, 企業作為成本控制的先導者會面對競爭對手 transaction that is embedded in a specific economic context. 者包括不可預計的情況 交換的頻繁程度以及容許交 The sustainability of the comparative advantages generated from The critical dimensions of transactions that influence 仿傚的風險, 新科技亦有助對手減低成本, 因而失去 generic strategies is questionable in a dynamic market. As a cost this choice are uncertainty, exchange frequency, 換的資產的獨特性 交易成本包括計了條件區分的明顯形勢, 業內其他以成本為策點重點 leader, a firm is exposed to the risks of imitation by competitors, and the specificity of assets enabling the exchange. 劃 採納 執行及監控直到任務完成 the emergency of new technology that may bring down the costs 的企業亦能達到減低成本的目標 至於區分策略同樣 Transaction costs include the costs of planning, 為止的成本開銷 TCE 的核心疑問是為 of competitors, the loss of differentiation proximity, and the lower adapting, executing, and monitoring task completion. 面對競爭對手仿傚的危機, 從買家角度而言產品漸漸 cost in the market niche achieved by cost focusers. The risks of the Indeed, the central question addressed by TCE is why 何企業要把可以在市場上進行的交易失去其獨特性, 周邊成本條件失利以及採用區分策略 $ differentiation strategy are imitation by competitors, the deterioration firms internalize transactions that might otherwise 內部化, 它認為交易效率的提升可以 of product uniqueness from the perspective of the buyers, the loss 的對手同樣可以達標 而重點策略者可能面對的難題 be conducted in markets. TCE holds that 爭取競爭優勢, 提升效率 減低 of cost proximity, and differentiation focusers achieving even greater transaction efficiency can create competitive 包括原有市場結構日漸失去吸引力, 用戶的獨有需求 differentiation in segments. The potential threats facing focusers advantages by increasing efficiency; reducing 成本 未可預測的條件 複雜下降, 甚至市場中出現過多競爭對手令企業失去獨特 include the target segment becoming structurally unattractive costs, uncertainty, complexity, and information 性及科技並行性可以達到這個 because of structure erosion and the disappearance of demand, 性, 或者市場漸漸與其他新板塊結合 (Hoskisson et asymmetry; and paving the way for smallnumbers bargaining conditions. Moreover, 目的 ; 交易效率亦可以為少量的 being overwhelmed by broadly targeted competitors in the al.,1999) segments, and the emergence of new sub-segments (Hoskisson et reputation, trust, and transactional experience 商議條件舖路 再者, 商譽 信譽及交易經 al., 1999). 波特提出五大動力模式來分析業界的吸引力和剖析 can lower the cost of peculiar exchanges between firms. 驗也可為企業間減低交易成本 Porter developed the Five Forces Model, which evaluates the Ulset (2002) noted that TCE deals with transaction hazards caused 競爭對手 這五大動力包括了消費者的議價能力 attractiveness of an industry and facilitates competitor analysis. The by interdependency and asymmetric information and the respective Ulset(2002) 注意到 TCE 針對的是因相關條件和並行供應商的議價能力 新加入者的威脅 產品或服 five forces are the bargaining power of customers, bargaining power governance structures (firm, markets, hybrid contracting) that may 資訊, 以及管治架構 ( 企業 市場和混合式合約 (hybrid of suppliers, threat of new entrants, threat of substitute products/ 務被取締的威脅 以及現有對手間的競爭情況 serve to mitigate such hazards. TCE can be applied strategically contracting)) 而導致的交易風險, 並嘗試減低風險 services, and rivalry among existing competitors. Wonglimpiyarat to explore how different governance forms may assist in exploiting Wonglimpiyarat (2005) 從四個角度批評波特的競爭 (2005) criticized Porter s competitive force model in four dimensions. competitive advantages that can be derived from leading technology 假如 TCE 運用得宜, 可以探索不同的管治方式如何輔動力模式, 首先, 模式的防衛形式非常 靜態, 它 First, the defensive position of the model tends to be static as and best practices. 助因尖端科技和出色表現帶來的競爭優勢 it encourages innovators to rely solely on external forces and 鼓勵企業依靠外在條件和科技來制定競爭策略, 局限 Rochet and Tirole (2003) concluded that economic value is created Rochet 和 Tirole(2003) 總結出由一對最終用戶即賣方 technology to form strategies to compete, thus limiting the potential 了內部資源的有利條件, 也忽視科技在業界不斷發展 by interactions or transactions between pairs of end users, that efficient use of internal resources and undermining the technological is, buyers and sellers. A transaction can occur only if the two sides 和買方所產生的 互動 和 交易 才能創造出經濟價提升的變化程度 第二, 模式只針對以新項目回應目 advancement dynamic in the industry. Second, the model intends to have at least one platform in common and both sides are willing to 值 而交易的發生必須是雙方都擁有一個共通的平 answer current market demand with new innovation, which seems to 前的市場需求, 忽略未開發市場的潛在客戶 第三, trade. Hence, transaction costs refers to a broad range of frictions 台, 而且願意進行交易 因此, 交易成本 是泛指所 overlook the potential group of customers in the unexploited market. 模式預設在亳無競爭的情況, 以及固定了企業與競爭 that make it costly for one side of the market to pass through a Third, the model presumes zero-sum competition and adversarial redistribution of charges to the other side. Often, these costs are 有阻礙會導致一方市場產生成本, 並將之轉介至其他對手對立的必然關係 它旨在爭取在市場搶灘時的利 50.訊.業.概.覽51

6 associated with small stakes for individual transactions, which can 方作為收費 通常這些成本對於個別交易而言或許只 configuration, coordination, and creation capabilities of the firm to 重整 第二, 綑綁有助穩定企業和改善資源, 增加現 become substantial when applied to a large number of transactions. achieve new competitive advantages (Hitt, 2005). Another strength 是個小數目, 但當大量交易出現時, 就變成一筆可觀有能力, 更可結合新舊資源以創造出新的競爭優勢 Amit and Zott (2001) suggested that, in general, organizations that of the RBV is its ability to incorporate the temporal component, 電economize on transaction costs can be expected to extract more 數字 Amit 和 Zott (2001) 建議企業如果要從交易成本 that is, the history of the firm, as an important antecedent into the 最後的進程是企業透過整合 協調和創新能力來達到 value from transactions. 的經濟效益着手, 可考慮從交易中獲取更多經濟價值 existing resources and capabilities. The temporal factor can provide 新的競爭優勢 (Hitt, 2005) RBV 的另一項長處是可以 However, there are limitations in using TCE as the source of the linkage between how a firm s resources and capability are 配合現有環境, 例如以企業的歷史融和現有的資源和 competitive advantage. First, the emphasis of TCE on efficiency 儘管如此, 以 TCE 作為競爭優勢來源要面對相當限制, accumulated and eroded, and how the resources are affected by the may divert attention from other fundamental sources of value (Amit 首先,TCE 所強調的所謂效益會令人忽略其他最基本 market changes over time (Priem and Butler, 2001). 能力, 這種條件有利企業的資源和能力進程接軌, 同 and Zott, 2001). Also, TCE logic was developed based on a set of Although the RBV covers the internal capacities of a firm that I/O 時能應付資源因市場變化帶來的影響 (Priem 和 Butler, 的資源價值 (Amit 和 Zott, 2001), 而且 TCE 的邏輯是建 assumptions about human behavior and attributes of transactions economics cannot and helps to explain the different performance 2001) that affect transactions between two firms: bounded rationality, 基於一連串對人類行為和交易情況的假設, 認為這些 among firms based on firm-specific resources and capabilities, opportunism, uncertainty, small numbers, and asset specificity, and 假設足以影響企業雙方的交易 : 既定的理性 機會主 there are defects in the theory. Hitt (2005) pointed out that the RBV 雖然跟 I/O 經濟相比,RBV 能顧及企業的內部條件, on assumptions of human (managerial) behavior and attributes of seems to be a tautology that defines rather than hypothesizes, which 義 小數目及產物的獨有性, 再加上人類即管理行為又能以企業特有的資源和能力來解釋企業之間表現 transactions that affect modes of transaction (e.g., market versus makes disconfirming the RBV difficult and justifying its contributions hierarchy) and outcomes (Hoskisson et al., 1999). These assumptions 以及交易形式 ( 例如市場 vs 架構 ) 以及結果 (Hoskisson in empirical induction questionable. In fact, the RBV suffers from 的差異, 理論仍有不足之處 Hitt (2005) 指出 RBV 只 may not apply in the dynamic marketplace of the twenty-first century. et al., 1999) 這些假設未必能符合 21 世紀多變的市 ambiguous theoretical constructs imported from microeconomic 着重定義多於假設, 難以評估 RBV 在實戰環境中的貢 Ulset (2002) stated that, from the point of view of TCE, to profit from a theory. Similarly, Priem and Butler (2001) indicated that as the 場環境 獻, 事實上 RBV 深受微觀經濟的含糊理論架構影響, mobile virtual network operation (MVNO) the price margin defined by criteria for the internal resources attributes in the RBV remain in a the difference between the final user price and network rental price Ulset (2002) 認為從 TCE 的角度而言, 要從流動虛擬 black box, the prescription regarding the competitive advantage 同樣,Priem 和 Butler(2001) 亦認為 RBV 所謂的內部 must cover not only the added transaction costs but also the virtual is also unclear. As a result, only the axioms underlying the RBV, 資源準則仍然是個謎團, 有關競爭優勢的論述亦欠清網絡營運 (MVNO) 中獲利, 定價不只要考慮最終用戶 market operator s own production costs. Through the outsourcing that resources are heterogeneous and not perfectly mobile, have 晰 結果,RBV 只有一點是獲認同的, 就是資源是繁 of network elements and service applications, costly duplication 價格和網絡租金, 也要彌補交易成本以及虛擬市場營 been clearly identified. The implicit assumptions concerning the can be avoided, existing infrastructure be more fully exploited, 運商的製作成本 透過外包商提供的網絡資源和服務 interrelationships among the concept definitions of RBV elements 雜而且並非完全流動的 因此, 對於在 RBV 元素中的 and network services be provided at the lowest possible unit cost require additional development and reevaluation against the 概念定義之間關聯的明顯假設, 需要進一步發展和重應用程式, 可避免運作重疊的成本, 現有基建也得以 (economies of scale). Virtual market operators may then gain extra requirements of theory. Amit and Zott (2001) questioned the 新審視 Amit 和 Zott (2001) 質疑在發展中的虛擬市場 profit if cheap transport and access services are combined with 充份使用, 網絡服務亦可以最低成本供應 ( 經濟效益 applicability of the RBV in the emerging virtual market. Whereas advanced functionality and value-added services, produced by the 規模 ) 虛擬市場營運商亦可以既有的設備和條件, the traditional RBV emphasizes value inimitability and competitive 引用 RBV 的可行性, 在傳統 RBV 強調價值的不可仿傚 virtual operator s own facilities and capabilities. High transaction advantage sustainability over time, the highly mobile informationbased resources in e-business suggest easy value migration, and 性和競爭優勢的維繫時, 可能削弱了電子商務中高度藉着用低廉的服務輸送和使用成本結合先進的技術功 costs may prevent virtual market operators from becoming profitable. 流動資源要求價值的轉移程度和新創價值的維持度 To improve a company s prospects, sources of transaction costs 能和增值服務來從中獲利 高昂的交易成本會阻礙虛 the sustainability of newly created value may be reduced. At the should be eliminated, and contractual and regulatory safeguards 擬市場營運商圖利, 要改善企業條件, 要盡量減少交 same time, preservation of value can be attained because time 同時, 價值的保留得以實現在於要模仿企業特有的資 that prevent transaction costs from escalating and market power compression diseconomies impose an effective barrier to the 源和能力, 時間花耗的壓力是仿傚者的主要阻力 總易成本的源頭, 以合約及守則來約束交易成本上升 from being extended and abused should be enforced. Simple imitation of firm-specific resources and capabilities. In a nutshell, 而言之, 網絡經濟鼓勵企業透過合作或共享協議來爭 contracts should be replaced by more complex contracts with 阻止擴充和濫用市場權力 簡化的合約應以複雜詳細 the network economy induces alternative ownership and control of stronger safeguards, such as long-term contracts, joint ventures, or 的合約取代, 付予更多的保障, 從長期合約 合資經 resources and capabilities via partnering or sharing agreements, and 取更多選擇權利和控制資源及能力, 因而令對手更容 fully integrated corporations, depending on the level of contractual rivals can access substitute resources easily, all of which challenges 易獲得取締資源, 這些現象都是對傳統 RBV 的挑戰 營到完全整合的企業架構, 視乎協議的難度和終止合 difficulty and the size of potential losses from separation to reduce the explanatory power of the traditional RBV. such transaction costs. However, successful cases using the MVNO 作後面對的潛在損失 事實上, 目前為止鮮有採用 business model are rare in the real world. MVNO 商業模式而成功的例子 5.4 Collaborative Approach 5.4 協作進路 Whereas the I/O economics perspective (Porter, 1980) views firms I/O 經濟的觀點 (Porter, 1980) 視企業為獨立運作的 5.3 Resource-Based View (RBV) as autonomous entities that strive for competitive advantages via 個體, 透過外在的工業資源來爭取競爭優勢,RBV 5.3 以資源為基礎的觀點 The RBV argues that the heterogeneous market positions of close external industry sources and the RBV holds that internal resources 則認為內部資源和能力可以創造競爭優勢 (Barney, competitors are based on each firm s unique bundle of resources RBV 的論點是在企業特有的資源和能力配合下令競爭 and capabilities create a competitive edge (Barney, 1991), the and capabilities (Barney, 1991). To create sustainable competitive collaborative approach looks into the potential of using strategic 1991), 至於協作進路則探究利用策略性網絡的潛力對手身處的混雜式市場環境 (Barney, 1991) 要維持 advantages, the resources and capabilities of a firm must be networks as a means to gain competitive advantages. These 來獲取競爭優勢 這些策略網絡包含企業間的聯繫, 長久的競爭優勢, 企業擁有的資源和能力必須是有價 valuable, rare, and isolated from imitation and substitution. However, strategic networks are composed of inter-firm ties such as strategic 例如策略性聯盟 合資經營及長期合作夥伴等 (Gulati value and inimitability are the focal points, because rareness is 值的 獨特 令人無法仿傚或取締 價值和無可仿傚 alliances, joint ventures, and long-term partnerships, among others applicable only if a resource is valuable and cannot be imitated by (Gulati et al., 2000). et al., 2000) 性作為焦點, 是因為獨特性只有在資 competitors. The strategies to safeguard resources and capabilities In contrast to Porter s competitive approach, 源有價值又無法被對手仿傚時才對比波特的競爭進路,Hamel 和 from imitation by competitors include property rights, learning Hamel and Prahalad s (1994) Managing and development costs, and causal ambiguity (Hoopes et 算有效 保護資源和能力免受對 Migration Paths Model advocates five Prahalad (1994) 的 Managing al., 2003). Recently, theoretical development of the RBV 手模仿的策略是產權 學習和開 strategies of collaborative effort to outperform Migration Paths Model(MMPM) 提 captures firm-specific competitive advantages. Three competitors: creation and management of 發成本以及因果模糊性 (Hoopes 倡五項策略利用協作方法超越競爭 approaches in effective resource management have been coalitions, learning and experimentation suggested which advocate the allocation of valuable et al., 2003) RBV 發展至最近針 in the market, building global brand 對手 : 創造和管理協作機會 在市 resources to create competitive advantages. First, a firm 對企業的競爭優勢為主, 並提出 and distribution, setting standards and 場中學習和歷練 建立國際品牌和 can restructure its resource portfolio via the acquisition influencing regulation, and investing in core 三項有效管理資源的進路, 以分銷渠道 制訂標準和守則 以及 and development of useful resources and abandonment competencies. Rooted in the assumption of redundant materials. Second, bundling allows a firm 寶貴資源來爭取競爭優 that a single firm may not have sufficient 投資核心資源 MMPM 認為單憑一 to stabilize and improve existing resources, enrich 勢 第一, 可以透過併 capabilities to compete in all dimensions in 家企業未必有足夠能力在複雜的市 and add value to existing capabilities, and recombine the complex marketplace, especially new 購 開發有用資源及放場中應付各方各面的競爭, 尤其是 existing and new resources to form new competitive start-ups, the collaborative strategy emerged advantages. The final process is leveraging the 棄累贅物資來進行企業 as a remedy to reduce the risk of competitive 對新興企業而言, 協作策略可以作 52 INDUSTRY OVERVIEW.訊.業.概.覽53