Appendix 1: Interview Protocol (English) 1. The image of science and the concept of Nature a) When speaking of Nature, what do you think Nature is and

Transcription

1 ENDNOTES 1. 道德经 2. 老子 3. 有物混成, 先天地生 寂兮寥兮, 独立而不改, 周行而不殆, 可以为天地母 吾不知其名, 强字之曰道 4. 迎之不见其首, 随之不见其后 5. 惚兮恍兮, 其中有象 ; 恍兮惚兮, 其中有物 6. 有生于无 7. 有无相生 8. 庄子 9. 庄子 - 齐物论 10. 人法地, 地法天, 天法道, 道法自然 11. 程颐 12. 道未始有天人之別, 但在天则为天道, 在地则为地道, 在人则为人道 13. 遗书 14. 仁义礼智信 15. 王阳明 16. 目无体, 以万物之色为体 ; 耳无体, 以万物之声为体 ; 鼻无体, 以万物之臭为体 ; 口无体, 以万物之味为体 ; 心无体, 以天地万物感之是非为体 17. 传习录 18. 黄帝内经. 素问 19. 董仲舒 20. 以类合之, 天人一也 21. 春秋繁露 22. 物故以类相召也 23. 国家之失乃使萌芽, 而天出灾害以谴告之 24. 周易 25. 与天地合其德, 与日月合其明, 与四时合其序, 与鬼神合其吉凶 26. 圣人有忧之, 是以推其天地万物一体之仁以教天下 27. 道法自然 28. 涤除元览, 能无疵乎 29. 荀子 30. 故明于天人之分, 则可谓至人矣 31. 荀子 - 天论 32. 天行有常, 不为尧存, 不为桀亡 33. 荀子 - 非相 34. 荀子 - 王制 35. 从天而颂之, 孰与制天命而用之 36. 刘禹锡 37. 天之所能者, 生万物也 ; 人之所能者, 治万物也 38. 刘禹锡 - 天论 39. 周易 - 系辞上 40. 物极必反 41. 程颐 42. 遗书 43. 养生主 44. 徐光启 45. 格物穷理 46. 刻几何原本序 47. 格物致知 48. 格致 85

2 Appendix 1: Interview Protocol (English) 1. The image of science and the concept of Nature a) When speaking of Nature, what do you think Nature is and is not? b) Can humans know all of the things about Nature? Why?/Why not? c) What sort of things can humans know about Nature and how do these things become known? d) What kind of relationship is there between humans and Nature? 2. The role of culture in the image of science Do you agree or disagree with these statements? Why? a) Western traditions and values are an implicit aspect of science. b) Science will progress the same way irrespective of the culture of the scientists involved. 3. The native knowledge in the image of science Questions based on the following scenario: A married couple had a daughter. One sultry summer s day, after playing in the sun for a long time, the little girl felt a bit sick and developed a fever. She was taken to see a Chinese herbal doctor and treated for sunstroke. The girl was prescribed a traditional Chinese therapy. Later that day, when the father and mother talked about what had happened with their daughter, they found that they could not reach agreement on the action taken. On the one hand, they worried that there was neither justifiable theoretical support nor rigorous clinical test results to support the use of that therapy. On the other hand they knew that the therapy had been used for hundreds of years and that there were many reports about its value and usefulness. Therefore, it was hard for them to reach agreement on their daughter s follow-up treatment. Questions included: a) What might you have done if you were the girl s mum or dad? Why? b) If you have to see a doctor, which factors may influence your decision about choosing a Chinese herbal doctor or a doctor of Western medicine? c) Traditional Chinese Medicine sometimes has quite different explanations to the cause of a disease and rationale of treatment from those of Western medicine. According to your understanding of Traditional Chinese Medicine, what do you think is the reason for the differences? d) Along with the development of science, do you think there will be a unified theory that can dispel the theoretical divergence between Traditional Chinese Medicine and Western medicine? Why? 87

3 Appendix 2: Interview Protocol (Chinese) 采访调查方案 ( 中文 ) 1. 科学的形象与自然的概念 a) 谈到 自然, 您认为什么是自然, 什么不是自然? b) 您认为人类能够了解关于自然的一切吗? 为什么? c) 关于自然, 哪些知识人类能够了解? 这些知识是怎样被了解的? d) 您认为人与自然的关系是怎样的? 2. 科学形象中文化的角色您是否同意以下说法? 为什么? a) 科学隐含着西方文化的传统和价值 b) 无论科学家的文化背景如何, 科学会以同样的方式进步 3. 科学形象中的本土知识问题以以下事例为基础 : 一对夫妇有一个女儿 在一个闷热的夏日, 当这个小女孩在阳光下玩儿了很长时间后, 她感到有点儿难受并且有点儿发烧 她被送到一位中医那儿, 被诊断为轻度中暑并接受了传统中医治疗 当天晚上, 这对夫妇在谈论他们女儿接受的治疗时, 发现他们对这种中医治疗方法有不同的看法 一方面, 中医治疗方法与西医非常不同, 他们担心这种治疗手段缺乏合理的理论支持和严格的临床检验 ; 另一方面, 他们知道, 尽管这种治疗手段的理论基础不能通过现代医学来解释, 但它的应用至少已经有几百年的历史, 并且有很多关于它的疗效的报道 因此, 对于女儿接下来的治疗方法, 他们仍然很难达成一致 问题 : a) 如果您是孩子的父亲或母亲, 您会让她接受中医还是西医的治疗? 为什么? b) 如果您生病需要看医生, 哪些因素会影响您选择中医还是西医? c) 在治疗某些疾病时, 中医和西医对致病原因和治疗原理有不同的解释 根据您对中西医的了解, 您认为导致这种不同的原因是什么? d) 随着科学的发展, 您认为是否将会有一个统一的理论能够消除中西医的理论分歧? 为什么? 88

4 Appendix 3: An Example of the Interviews (Chinese) 采访者 : 假如我提到自然的话, 您脑海中出现一种什么印象呢? 自然是什么, 或自然不是什么? 倩 : 自然是什么, 那我们存在的环境就是自然了 采访者 : 就是所有的东西都是自然, 还是在您看来, 有东西是不属于自然的? 倩 : 我觉得这些都是自然, 我们生存的这个环境都是自然的 和自然相对就是人文的了, 人文的在我看来就是写写文章啊, 搞一些理论什么的, 谈一些什么观点, 人说的这些东西, 是人文的, 那自然界存在的这些东西都属于自然的 采访者 : 就是在您看来倩 : 客观存在的 就是人不存在了它也存在的那些东西就是自然的 采访者 : 那么人是不是自然的呢? 倩 : 人是自然界的一种动物, 哺乳动物,( 笑 ) 采访者 : 假如让您形容一下自然的话, 您会用哪些形容词来形容您想象的, 您脑海中的自然呢? 倩 : 形容词啊,( 思考 ), 客观存在, 不以人的意志为改变的, 它有一定的规律, 有自己, 自身的一个规律, 自身的发展规律, 别的我还真想不出来 ( 笑 ) 采访者 : 因为人是在不断地认识自然的, 在您看来, 哪些关于自然的东西人是能够认识的? 或者换句话说, 您是不是觉得关于自然的东西, 人是都能够认识的? 倩 : 我觉得人都可以认识, 但是只是说有一些我们已经认识了, 有些还有待我们去认识采访者 : 就是说随着时间的发展, 如果有足够的时间的话, 应该都能认识透彻, 在您看来倩 : 对 我觉得知识虽然是无穷尽的, 但是人的研究也是无穷尽的, 慢慢去琢磨, 总有能发现的那一天 采访者 : 没有说存在着什么因素, 就是说你再努力, 给你再长的时间也没有办法认识的东西? 倩 : 我觉得不存在吧 采访者 : 另外, 在您看来, 人类是用什么样的方式去认识自然的? 倩 : 什么样的方式,( 思考 ), 研究吧, 采访者 : 就是说人应该去研究自然倩 : 观察, 研究, 琢磨, 然后思考, 得到论证以后, 看看大家承认不承认, 对不对, 再验证, 就这么一个科学探究的过程 采访者 : 就是说通过这个科学探究的过程去了解自然? 倩 : 差不多, 就是这么个意思 89

5 采访者 : 另外谈到人与自然的关系的话, 您觉得人与自然应该是一种什么样的关系呢? 倩 : 我希望是, 现在都提到的人与自然和谐发展, 但是就目前来看, 人总是在破坏自然, 破坏自然的同时又受到自然的教育, 然后又改正自己的行为, 去维护自然, 是一个共同依存发展的过程 采访者 : 就是说理想的状态应该是和谐的发展倩 : 但是现在达不到采访者 : 从他们之间相互关系上来讲, 有没有一个强弱高低, 这种关系, 还是人与自然你认为是平等的呢? 倩 : 应该是平等的, 采访者 : 这个平等, 能不能说得再详细一点, 从哪方面讲是平等的? 倩 : 我觉得人不能掌控自然, 自然的发展, 希望自然好, 自然坏, 人无法去掌控它, 只能去维护, 或者是努力想办法去改造自然, 但是不能掌控自然的发展, 同时自然也无法掌控人的发展, 谁也控制不了谁, 自己发展自己, 虽然互相能影响 采访者 : 另外, 我们谈的这些, 可能作为学生来讲, 他大概也会思考到这些问题, 在您看来, 这些关于自然的这些问题会不会影响到学生上课学习科学知识呢? 您觉得有没有比较直接或明显的影响呢? 倩 : 我觉得作为初中的学生思考这些东西还是少 我没怎么遇到过, 我觉得上课更是遇不到, 上课都挺忙活的, 无暇顾及这些东西 而且他们年龄来说, 思考这种纯理论性的东西还少, 你说他遇到一个现象什么的问一问还行, 想得多一些, 但是纯理论性的东西, 这个关系, 我感觉他们想不了这么深 采访者 : 就是说在您看来, 即便是有, 也不是特别直接或明显的影响? 倩 : 没有很大的影响, 可能到高中以后会好一些 采访者 : 就是说您觉得随着年龄增长, 他们想的可能会多一些, 可能会影响? 倩 : 嗯 采访者 : 接下来, 这里有一些对科学的看法, 想听一听您的意见 有一种看法认为科学体现着西方文化的传统和价值, 对于这种看法, 您是不是同意? 倩 : 我感觉, 从清朝以后, 科学在西方发展比较快, 在咱们国家发展比较慢, 但是并不代表着中国没有科学, 中国之所以科学不能发展可能应该跟她的政治背景有关系, 她的政府不支持这个东西 采访者 : 您说的政府, 指的是倩 : 封建社会中国好像并不看重科学发展, 她注重写文章啊这些东西, 做官啊, 官里边好象很少, 现在提到的官, 好像都属于那种搞行政的, 没有那种搞科学的, 感觉那个时代, 政府不支持, 所以在这个方面, 中国发展得比较慢 但是作为中国来说肯定也有, 而且现在咱们国家也慢慢地重视这个东西了 90

6 采访者 : 您的意思是倩 : 科学是科学, 可能大家思维方式不一样, 但不能说这个东西代表着西方 只能说明那一段时期内, 西方的科学发展比较快, 中国曾经也有一段时期比较快, 发展的阶段不一样, 注重的东西也不一样 采访者 : 您的意思是中国也对科学作出过贡献, 所以不能单纯地说科学体现着西方的文化传统, 是不是这个意思? 倩 : 应该是吧, 我觉得西方比咱们发展还晚呢 最开始, 我觉得咱们国家比他们早, 后来可能慢了 采访者 : 提到做出的贡献, 您能不能举个例子啊? 说这些贡献都是什么, 为什么您觉得重要? 倩 : 要举例子, 还是说不太好, 我历史学得不太好 ( 笑 ) 但是我觉得科学这个东西, 大家研究的, 不是说他们就有研究的传统, 咱们就没有研究的传统, 看需要, 看国家支持 如果咱们国家从政府往下, 支持这个发展, 慢慢地, 时间长了就赶上去了, 甚至超过他们 采访者 : 您的意思是说都有倩 : 能力采访者 : 科学研究的传统, 不管是东方或者西方? 倩 : 差不多 采访者 : 您觉得您上课讲科学, 同时也在讲东方或西方文化吗? 倩 : 不讲, 讲得很少 最多就是介绍一下科学家 然后告诉孩子们科学家大多数都是国外的, 希望以后能有咱们国家的 我就介绍一下这个, 别的介绍得很少 采访者 : 有人认为, 不管科学家本人的文化背景怎么样, 科学研究是不会受文化背景影响的 这个看法, 您是不是同意呢? 倩 : 我感觉, 科学家本人, 他的志向, 应该也受他的家庭环境啊, 社会环境的影响, 应该是作为个人来讲, 他受周围环境的影响挺大的, 我记得我见过的一些科学家, 尤其国外的那些科学家, 都属于那种家族式的, 父亲, 母亲, 丈夫, 妻子, 好像都是干这一个领域的, 有家族, 好几代历史, 出的成果比较多, 感觉也是受这个背景影响吧 咱们国家我感觉, 科学家少, 过去这种传统可能也受一定影响, 采访者 : 过去的传统指的是什么传统呢? 倩 : 不是说什么传统, 就是说咱们国家, 咱们不能排除像钱学森那样的自己去闯去, 但是我觉得要想形成大规模的, 有一种氛围的话, 还得有家族, 或整个社会环境的影响, 才能出成就出得比较多 采访者 : 假如说在中国成长起来的科学家, 和国外的科学家, 同样去研究同一个现象, 他们的研究成果或研究结果跟科学家本人的文化背景有关系吗? 您觉得? 91

7 倩 : 研究成果和文化背景没什么关系吧 结果, 结果是什么就是什么, 这个结果不会因为你是在中国还是在外国结论就不一样了, 只能存在一种对或错, 要么就是你的错了, 要么就是对了 ( 笑 ) 采访者 : 那么科学研究的目的呢? 不同的科学家有共同的研究目的吗? 倩 : 研究目的, 我觉得现在, 研究目的中西方应该差不多吧 都是为了用它吧, 我有用处我才去研究这些东西, 有需要才去研究 采访者 : 从这方面来讲, 都是因为有需要或有用处才去研究, 这方面是一样的? 倩 : 我认为是的 采访者 : 科学给我们描述了一个世界的图像, 对这个世界提出了一种解释, 但实际上对世界的解释, 不仅仅是科学提出来的, 还有其它的许多, 不同的文化有不同的解释, 另外, 像宗教什么的 那么有的人就认为说, 我们应该用科学的世界观来取代其它的世界观, 这才表示社会的进步 对于这个看法, 您是怎么看的? 倩 : 我觉得应该采取一种包容的态度 而且宗教存在了这么多年, 科学没有的时候就有宗教, 科学有了还有宗教, 那它肯定有它存在的必要性, 而且作为我个人来理解, 虽然我是学物理的, 我承认科学是, 客观的, 但是有的时候我也愿意去相信宗教的一些说法, 它给人的精神一种寄托, 宗教, 人不能光有面包吧,( 笑 ) 采访者 : 您的意思就是说不见得社会的进步非得是去用科学的世界观取代其它的世界观, 才表明社会的进步倩 : 社会的进步应该体现在一种它的包容性吧 采访者 : 就您本人来讲, 您觉得如果有不同的对世界的解释的话, 您更倾向于接受哪一种呢? 倩 : 这不好说, 因为我还没有遇到太多, 我也不知道目前要选择哪种, 可能介绍了, 我觉得这个挺好的就去接受采访者 : 就是说不见得一定是科学的解释倩 : 目前我已经接受了一种东西, 再想改变估计挺困难,( 笑 ) 采访者 : 您已经接受的东西指的是什么东西? 倩 : 目前我不信任何宗教, 作为宗教, 我可以理解它, 去了解它, 但是, 我并不崇拜它, 百分之百地相信它, 我只能说是这个东西中, 这个道理讲得挺好, 拿过来把这个为我所用, 可能是这样 然后, 这么多年上学学下来, 学的这些东西, 我觉得肯定是, 学的物理上, 讲的一些科学道理, 我可能觉得是百分之百正确的 大概就这么一个状况 ( 笑 ) 采访者 : 接下来有一些小故事 您先看一下, 然后我们围绕着这几个故事谈一下 倩 : ( 阅读 ) 采访者 : 假如您是这个孩子的妈妈, 您会让她看中医还是看西医呢? 倩 : 怎么说呢, 我觉得哪个方便看哪个吧 中西医我都信 92

8 采访者 : 具体到这个事例, 您会怎么做呢? 倩 : 这个事例,( 思考 ), 不一定非得是哪一种, 我觉得中西医各有特点, 作为中暑来说, 我可能会让她去看西医吧 采访者 : 为什么? 倩 : 因为我觉得这种病西医可能更擅长一些吧 如果是其它的一些病我可能建议去看中医 我觉得中西医各有擅长, 看哪个擅长哪个就看哪个吧 采访者 : 如果您生病需要看医生的话, 哪些因素影响您看中医还是看西医呢? 倩 : 一是得了什么病, 比方说感冒发烧, 或者骨折什么的, 我就去看西医, 但是如果我肩膀疼或是肩周炎, 类似于什么内分泌不调, 我就去看中医 我觉得西医可能立竿见影, 效果快, 但是对于一些慢性病不太适用 采访者 : 一般您是通过哪些途径知道中医的呢? 倩 : 哪些途径? 采访者 : 您学过吗? 倩 : 没学过, 但是毕竟长在中国嘛, 对中医耳濡目染有点了解, 我觉得中医号脉很玄, 但是我信那东西 采访者 : 为什么您觉得玄您还信它呢? 倩 : 因为中国没有西医的时候就是中医, 中医也看好了很多人, 它就这么一些方法, 传承下来的, 说明它还是有对的地方, 这么多年总结下来的精髓就是望闻问切 采访者 : 有的人认为中医不科学, 倩 : 认为不科学是因为他不了解吧 什么叫科学呀? 客观事实就是科学, 中医, 这个病就是这么治就好了, 这就是科学 采访者 : 在您看来, 如果是客观事实, 就是科学的 倩 : 对 采访者 : 如果是不科学的话呢? 不科学的话可能是什么样子的? 倩 : 不科学那就是把人治坏了呗 ( 笑 ) 采访者 : 假如对某个自然现象的解释, 可能有不同的解释, 在您看来, 您觉得哪个可能是科学的或者是听起来更有道理, 哪个听起来好像是在瞎编, 或者是觉得没道理, 判断这个的话, 您怎么判断? 倩 : 根据自己的经验吧 觉得哪个跟自己以往的知识更接近一些, 更能接受一些, 就觉得哪个是正确的 采访者 : 比如像中医和西医都能治好病, 但是它们可能有不同的解释 比如说, 中医扎针灸治好了病, 中医可能说是疏通了气, 它用气来解释 ; 西医可能说, 是不是因为促进了血液循环啊 这两种解释, 在您看来, 哪一种听起来更科学? 93

9 倩 : 我觉得大家的角度不同吧, 我觉得都可以接受, 只是角度不同 咱们上课的时候讲一道题还有多种解法呢, 一个问题可以多个角度去看, 可以同时接受 不一定非得谁对谁错 采访者 : 不见得不一样就肯定是一个对, 一个错的, 在您看来倩 : 对 采访者 : 从科学发展的一般角度去看, 您觉得为什么会产生这种不一样呢? 您刚才提到看问题从不同的角度, 是不是还有其它的原因呢? 倩 : 可能大家的思维习惯不一样吧 西方人更习惯于说这东西一是一二是二, 非得一清二白的, 什么都特别严谨, 接受不了那种说得很玄的, 虽然对, 但是看不见摸不着的东西不接受, 大家思维习惯不一样, 中国人几千年来相信这个望闻问切, 相信人是有气场什么的, 所以好接受这个, 我觉得可能是大家思维习惯, 生活习惯, 和历史背景不太一样吧 采访者 : 所以也导致了对同一现象可能有不同的理论去解释? 倩 : 对 采访者 : 那么在您看来, 这个不同的理论可能都有它的道理, 是这个意思吗? 倩 : 是 采访者 : 再推广一步说, 有没有可能随着科学的发展, 认识的深入, 能够有一个比较统一的理论, 能够消除这种不一样呢? 还是倩 : 我觉得应该可以有 殊途同归嘛 采访者 : 有没有可能, 再怎么发展, 还是两种不同的理论, 因为, 像您说的, 看问题的思维方式不一样呢? 倩 : 就像光学中讲的波粒二象性, 大家研究不一样, 出现矛盾, 但是最后殊途同归 客观事实应该只有一个, 说不一样只是因为你还没有认识到那个层次 采访者 : 就是说产生不一样的原因还有一个, 就是说大家谁的认识都没有达到一定高的层次, 使不同统一起来 倩 : 对 采访者 : 如果随着科学的发展, 认识的深入, 有可能, 是能够统一起来 倩 : 恩 94

10 Appendix 4: An Example of the Interviews (English) (This is a translation of the interview transcript given in Appendix 3.) Interviewer: Speaking of Nature, what would emerge in your mind? What is Nature? What is not Nature? Qian: What Nature is? The environment within which we live is Nature. Interviewer: Does everything belong to Nature? Or for you, is there something that does not belong to Nature? Qian: I feel the whole environment is Nature. What is in contrast to Nature are humanities, which for me is something like writing essays, doing things in theory, talking about opinions things that are subject to human ideas. What exists in natural world belongs to Nature. Interviewer: That is, for you Qian: Objective. Nature is something that is always there even if humans don t exist. Interviewer: Then do humans belong to Nature? Qian: Human being is a kind of animal in the natural world, mammal, (Laugh) Interviewer: If you are asked to describe Nature, the one in your mind, which adjectives would you use? Qian: Adjectives, (Think), objective, not subject to change with human will. It has a certain law, its own law, law of its own development. Can t think of more (laugh) Interviewer: Humans are trying to know Nature. For you, what sort of things can humans know about Nature? Or in other words, can humans know all the things about Nature? Qian: I feel all can be known. Only some have already been known and some are still to be known Interviewer: That is to say that as time goes by, if there is enough time, as you see it, all can be known thoroughly? Qian: Yes. I think although knowledge is infinite, human study is also infinite. Studying it gradually, it can always be discovered one day. Interviewer: Is there anything that still can t be known, no matter how hard you try, how much longer time you are given? Qian: I feel there isn t. Interviewer: In addition, as you see it, how does Nature become known? Qian: How, (Think), by studying it, Interviewer: That is to say humans should study Nature, Qian: Observe, study, speculate, think. Once getting a conclusion, see whether everyone accepts, whether it is right. Then test it again. A process of scientific inquiry. Interviewer: That is, to know Nature through this process of scientific inquiry? Qian: More or less. 95

11 Interviewer: Furthermore, speaking of the relationship between humans and Nature, what kind of relationship do you think is there between humans and Nature? Qian: I wish, it is often mentioned nowadays that humans and Nature should develop harmoniously. But so far, humans have been doing harm to Nature. While at the same time, humans have learned their lesson and made correction to preserve Nature. It s a process of interdependent development. Interviewer: That is to say an ideal situation is to develop harmoniously. Qian: But it hasn t been reached so far. Interviewer: In terms of the status, is there any relationship like relative superiority or interiority between humans and Nature? Or they are equal? Qian: Should be equal. Interviewer: Could you say more about the equality? In terms of what? Qian: I feel that humans can t control Nature. The development of Nature, whether you wish it good or bad, can t be controlled. Humans can only preserve or try to change Nature, but can t control the development of Nature. While Nature can t control the human development either. No one can control the other. Each has its own course, though there is mutual influence. Interviewer: what s more, students sometimes may also think about what we just discussed. As you see it, can these Nature-related issues influence students science learning? Is there any direct or obvious influence? Qian: I feel that junior high school students seldom think about this stuff. I ve hardly experienced [this situation] and I feel it unlikely to experience it in classroom teaching. During a class, everyone is too busy to attend to this matter. What s more, given their age, the students seldom think about this purely theoretical stuff. They might ask about certain phenomena. But purely theoretical stuff, I feel they can t go so deep. Interviewer: That is to say, as you see it, even though there is some influence, it can t be very direct or obvious? Qian: No big influence. It might be getting better when they go to senior high school. Interviewer: That means you feel that as they grow older, they may think more about it? Qian: Yes. Interviewer: Next, there are some statements about science. I d like to know your opinions. One statement says that Western traditions and values are an implicit aspect of science. Do you agree? Qian: I feel that since Qing Dynasty, science has been developed relatively quick in the West, while slow in our country. But this does not mean that there is no science in China. The reason why science couldn t develop well in China might have had something to do with her political background. The government didn t support it. 96

12 Interviewer: By the government, you mean Qian: In feudal society, it seemed that China didn t value the development of science. People paid more attention to writing essays or something like that, to get an official post. the official posts were related to administrative work, not doing science. The rulers didn t support it. So in this field, the development was slow in China. But China must have had, nowadays our government has gradually begun to value it. Interviewer: You mean Qian: Science is science. Maybe people have different ways of thinking, but you can t say that this stuff represents the West. You can only say that during that certain period, science developed more quickly in the West. There was also a period in China when science developed quickly. During different periods, different things were valued. Interviewer: You mean that China also made contributions to science, so it can t be simply said that science represents Western cultural tradition? Qian: Yes. I feel that the West began to develop later than us. At first, I feel our country started [developing] earlier, but slowed down later on. Interviewer: Speaking of contributions, could you give some examples? What contributions? Why do you think they were important? Qian: As for examples, I m not quite sure, I m not good at History (Laugh). But I feel things like science, everyone can study. You can t say that they have the tradition of study and we don t. It depends on the necessity, the government s support. If governments at all levels in our country support the development, gradually, given enough time, [we] can catch up, even surpass them. Interviewer: You mean both have Qian: Ability Interviewer: Scientific research tradition, regardless of the East or the West? Qian: More or less. Interviewer: Do you think when you are teaching science, you are also teaching Eastern culture or Western culture? Qian: No, seldom. At best, just introduce a little about scientists. Then tell the kids that most scientists were foreigners and I hope to see more Chinese scientists in the future. Just like this. Interviewer: Some people think that science will progress the same way irrespective of the culture of the scientists involved. Do you agree? Qian: I feel, a scientist, his ambition, should be influenced by his family environment, social environment. As an individual, he should be influenced a great deal by his environment. I remember that some scientists I know, especially those in foreign countries, it s like family business. Father, mother, husband, and wife, all work in the same field. In some families, after several generations, they have made lots of contributions. I feel this kind of background has influence. In our country, I feel, there are fewer scientists and the past tradition may have influence. 97

13 Interviewer: What do you mean by past tradition? What kind of tradition? Qian: Not some traditions. I mean, in our country, we can t say there isn t someone like Qian Xue Sen, who achieved great success by himself. But I feel if you want it to be on a large scale, to achieve more, there has to be the influence of the family, or the whole social environment. Interviewer: If Chinese and foreign scientists study the same phenomenon, will the result of their study be influenced by their cultural background? Qian: There couldn t be any link between research result and cultural background. Result, the result is as what it is. The result will not be different whether you are in China or in a foreign country. There is only one result, right or wrong. Either you are right, or you are wrong. (Laugh) Interviewer: Then what about the purpose of scientific research? Can different scientists have the same research purpose? Qian: Research purpose, I feel it is pretty much the same now in China or in the West. Both for the sake of application, studying it in order to make use of it. To study it when there is the necessity. Interviewer: It is the same in terms of application or necessity? Qian: I think so. Interviewer: Science describes an image of world to us, providing an explanation of the world. However, except for science, there are other explanations of the world offered by different cultures and religions. Someone thinks that progress is made when scientific worldview substitutes for traditional worldview. What do you think? Qian: I feel we should take a tolerant attitude. Religions have existed for so many years. They existed when there was no science. They still exist after science has come into being. There must be some reason for them to exist. Personally, although I study Physics and I acknowledge that science is objective, sometimes I m willing to believe some religious ideas, which offer hope spiritually. People can t only have bread (Laugh). Interviewer: You mean the progress of a society does not necessarily mean the scientific worldview taking the place of other worldviews? Qian: The progress of a society should be represented by its tolerance. Interviewer: Personally, if there are different explanations of the world, which one are you inclined to accept? Qian: Hard to say. I haven t met many. I don t know which one to choose at the moment. Maybe after having been introduced, I ll accept a sound one. Interviewer: It s not necessarily the one offered by science? Qian: I ve already accepted something. It could be hard to change (Laugh). Interviewer: What is this something that you ve already accepted? Qian: Presently I don t believe in any religion. I can try to learn and understand religion, but I don t worship it, or a-hundred-percent believe in it. I can only say that there are some sound ideas in it and I 98

14 can make use of them. After so many years of schooling, I may feel what I ve learned, scientific knowledge in Physics, is a-hundredpercent correct. Generally, it s like this (Laugh). Interviewer: Next, there are some scenarios. Before we talk about them, could you have a look first? Qian: (Read) Interviewer: If you were the girl s mum, would you have let her see a Chinese herbal doctor or a doctor of Western medicine? Qian: Well, it would depend on which was convenient. I trust both. Interviewer: Particularly in this case, what might you have done? Qian: This case, (Think), it didn t have to be either one or the other. I feel each has distinguishing features. As for sunstroke, I might have had her see a doctor of Western medicine. Interviewer: Why? Qian: Because I feel that Western medicine might be better at treating this type of illness. If it had been other types of illness, I might have suggested seeing an herbal doctor. I feel that each one has its strong points. It depends. Interviewer: If you have to see a doctor, which factors may influence your decision about choosing a Chinese herbal doctor or a doctor of Western medicine? Qian: One is the type of illness. For instance, if I catch a cold, having a fever, or have a fracture, I d see a doctor of Western medicine. But for shoulder pain, periarteritis of shoulder joint, or endocrinopathy, I d see an herbal doctor. I feel that Western medicine has an immediate effect, but not quite good at some chronic diseases. Interviewer: By which means do you usually learn about Traditional Chinese Medicine (TCM)? Qian: Which means? Interviewer: Have you studied it? Qian: No. After all, I was brought up in China. Being imbued with what I see and hear constantly, I ve learned a little about TCM. I feel that feeling the pulse is very abstruse, but I believe in it. Interviewer: Why do you still believe in it, though you feel it is abstruse? Qian: Because there used to be only TCM when there was no Western medicine in China. TCM has also cured many people with its inherited treatments, which has showed there is something correct in it. Look, listen, question and feel the pulse are the marrow summarised during so many years. Interviewer: Some people think TCM is not scientific, Qian: Thinking it not scientific may be because he doesn t know it. What is science? Objective fact is science. TCM cures illness. This is science. Interviewer: For you, if it is objective fact, it is scientific. Qian: Yes. Interviewer: What about not scientific? What is it if it is not scientific? 99

15 Qian: It is not scientific if it fails to cure diseases (Laugh) Interviewer: There might be different explanations to a certain natural phenomenon. How would you judge which explanation is scientific or sounds convincing, while which sounds false or unreliable? Qian: According to my own experience. It would sound correct if it is close to my existing knowledge and easier to accept. Interviewer: Both TCM and Western medicine can cure diseases, however, they may have different explanations to their treatments. For example, TCM may use the concept of Qi to explain the principle of acupuncture, saying that acupuncture unclogs the movement of Qi ; While Western medicine might explain it as facilitating the circulation of blood. As you see it, which one sounds more scientific? Qian: I feel that they are from different angles. I feel that both can be accepted just different angles. In our teaching, there are situations where one problem has multiple solutions. One problem can be seen from multiple angles and can be accepted at the same time. It s not necessary to distinguish clearly which one is right and which one is wrong. Interviewer: For you, differences don t necessarily mean one is right and other is wrong? Qian: No. Interviewer: In terms of the general development of science, why do you think there are differences? You just mentioned seeing things from different angles. Are there any other reasons? Qian: Maybe because of different ways of thinking. Western people are inclined to distinguish things clearly. They re so rigorous that they can t accept things which are abstruse and obscure, though correct, but can t be seen and felt. The ways of thinking are different. Chinese people have trusted this diagnosis of look, listen, question and feel the pulse for thousands of years, believing the existence of the field of Qi, so they re easy to accept this. I feel maybe because we have different ways of thinking, ways of living and historical backgrounds. Interviewer: So it has led to different theories of the same phenomenon? Qian: Yes. Interviewer: And for you, different theories may all have some truth in them? Qian: Yes. Interviewer: Furthermore, along with the development of science and deeper understanding, is it possible there will be a unified theory that can dispel the theoretical divergence? Or Qian: I feel it is possible. Reaching the same goal by different routes. Interviewer: Is it possible, no matter how developed [science is], there are still two different theories? Because of, as you said, different ways of thinking? 100

16 Qian: Just like wave particle duality in optics, contradiction appeared because of different studies. But finally they reached the same goal by different routes. There should only be one objective truth. To say differences is just because your understanding hasn t reached that level. Interviewer: That is to say that another reason why there are differences is that no one has reached the level at which the divergence can be unified? Qian: Yes. Interviewer: It is possible to unify theories along with the development of science and deeper understanding. Qian: Yes. 101

17 REFERENCES Aikenhead, G. S. (1996). Science education: Border crossing into the subculture of science. Studies in Science Education, 27(1), Aikenhead, G. S. (2006). Science education for everyday life: Evidence-based practice. New York & London: Teachers College Press. Aikenhead, G. S., & Jegede, O. J. (1999). Cross-cultural science education: A cognitive explanation of a cultural phenomenon. Journal of Research in Science Teaching, 36(3), Aikenhead, G., & Michell, H. (2011). Bridging culture Indigenous and scientific ways of knowing nature. Toronto, Ontario: Pearson Canada. Aikenhead, G., & Ogawa, M. (2007). Indigenous knowledge and science revisited. Cultural Studies of Science Education, 2(3), Buck, P. (1981). Science and modern Chinese culture. In E. Mendelsohn & Y. Elkana (Eds.), Sciences and cultures: Anthropological and historical studies of the sciences. Dordrecht, Boston & London: D. Reidel Publishing Company. Cai, M. (1993). Purposes and requirements for teaching of science in primary schools. In Y. J. Liu (Ed.), Book of Major Educational Events in China ( ) (Vol.1, pp ). Hangzhou: Zhejiang Jiaoyu Chubanshe. Charlesworth, M. (1982). Science, non-science & pseudo-science. Victoria: Deakin University Press. Chinese Communist Party Central Committee (CCP CC). (1993). Zhongguo jiaoyu gaige he fazhan gangyao (zhongfa[1993]3) [Outline for reform and development of education in China]. Retrieved from Chinese Communist Party Central Committee (CCP CC). (1999). Guanyu jiaqiang keji chuangxi, fazhan gaokeji, shixian chanyehua de jueding [Decisions on enhancing innovation of science and technology, developing high-technology, and achieving industrialisation]. Retrieved from Cihai Bianji Weiyuanhui (CBW). (1979). Cihai [The book of words]. Shanghai: Shanghai Cishu Chubanshe. Cobern, W. W. (1989, March). Worldview theory and science education research: Fundamental epistemological structure as a critical factor in science learning and attitude development. Paper presented at the annual meeting of the National Association for Research in Science Teaching, San Francisco, CA. Cobern, W. W. (1993). College students conceptualizations of Nature: An interpretive world view analysis. Journal of Research in Science Teaching, 30(8), Cobern, W. W. (1996). Worldview theory and conceptual change in science education. Science Education, 80(5), Cobern, W. W. (2000). The nature of science and the role of knowledge and belief. Science and Education, 9(3), Driver, D., Leach, J., Millar, R., & Scott, P. (1996). Young people s images of science. Buckingham & Philadelphia: Open University Press. Du, S. R., & Han, Q. (1995). An overview of Chinese science in the Ming-Qing period. In K. Hashimoto, C. Jami & L. Skar (Eds.), East Asian science: Tradition and beyond (pp ). Osaka: Kansai University Press. Duan, Z. W. (2001). Zhongguo xiandai kexue wenhua de xingqi [The rise of the modern Chinese scientific culture]. Shanghai: Shanghai Renmin Chubanshe. Duhem, P. (1954). The aim and structure of physical theory (P. P. Wiener, Trans.). Princeston: Princeton University Press. (Original work published 1914.) Fan, H. Y. (1988). Cong Ge Zhi dao kexue [From Ge Zhi to science ]. Journal of Dialectics of Nature, 55(3), Feyerabend, P. (1975). Against method. London: Verso. Fosnot, C. T. (1996a). Preface. In C. T. Fosnot (Ed.), Constructivism: Theory, perspectives, and practice (pp. ix-xi). New York & London: Teachers College, Columbia University. 103

18 REFERENCES Fosnot, C. T. (1996b). Constructivism: A psychological theory of learning. In C. T. Fosnot (Ed.), Constructivism: Theory, perspectives, and practice (pp. 8 33). New York & London: Teachers College, Columbia University. Franklin, A. (1999). Can that be right? Dordrecht, Boston & London: Kluwer Academic Publishers. Fung, Y. L. (1960). A short history of Chinese philosophy. New York: The Macmillan Company. Gao, S. L. (1985). Waiguo Jiaohui Zai Zhongguo Bande Xuexiao [Mission schools in China]. In Zhongguo Da Baike Quanshu Zong Bianji Weiyuanhui (Ed.), Zhongguo da baike quanshu [Encyclopedia of China] (Vol. 12, pp ). Beijing & Shanghai: Zhongguo Da Baike Quanshu Chubanshe. Geertz, C. (1973). The interpretation of culture. New York: Basic Books. George, J. M. (1999). Indigenous knowledge as a component of the school curriculum. In L. M. Semali & J. L. Kincheloe (Eds.), What is indigenous knowledge? Voices from the academy (pp ). New York: Falmer Press. Godfrey-Smith, P. (2003). Theory and reality - An introduction to the philosophy of science. Chicago & London: The University of Chicago Press. Groenfeldt, D. (2003). The future of indigenous values: Cultural relativism in the face of economic development. Futures, 35(9), Gross, P., & Levitt, N. (1994). Higher superstition: The academic left and its quarrels with science. Baltimore, MD: John Hopkins University Press. Gu, Z. K. (2002). Zhongxi fanyi dachao he xihua yiqiannian [The translation and the one thousand years of Westernisation]. In C. Wen (Ed.), Zai Beida ting jiangzuo [Attending seminars in Beijing University] (Vol. 5, pp ). Beijing: Xinshijie Chubanshe. Hacking, I. (1983). Representing and intervening. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Hall, D., & Ames, R. T. (1995). Anticipating China: Thinking through the narratives of Chinese and western culture. Albany: State University of New York Press. Hall, S. (1992). The West and the rest: Discourse and power. In S. Hall & B. Gieben (Eds.), Formations of modernity (pp ). Cambridge: Polity Press in association with the Open University. Hall, S. (1997a). Introduction. In S. Hall (Ed.), Representation: Cultural representations and signifying practices (pp. 1 11). London: Sage. Hall, S. (1997b). The work of representation. In S. Hall (Ed.), Representation: Cultural representations and signifying practices (pp ). London: Sage. Han, D. (1985). Zhongguo gudai zhuanke xuexiao [Specialised schools in ancient China]. In Zhongguo Da Baike Quanshu Zong Bianji Weiyuanhui (Ed.), Zhongguo da baike quanshu [Encyclopedia of China] (Vol. 12, pp ). Beijing & Shanghai: Zhongguo Da Baike Quanshu Chubanshe. Harding, S. (1991). Whose science? Whose knowledge? Milton Keynes: Open University Press. Harding, S. (1998). Is science multicultural? Postcolonialisms, feminisms, and epistemologies. Bloomington & Indianapolis: Indiana University Press. Hart, R. (1999). On the problem of Chinese science. In M. Biagioli (Ed.), The science studies reader (pp ). New York & London: Routledge. Hayhoe, R. (1996). China s universities : A century of cultural conflict. New York: Garland. Hecht, M. L., Baldwin, J. R., & Faulkner, S. L. (2006). The (in)conclusion of the matter: Shifting signs and models of culture. In J. R. Baldwin, S. L. Faulkner, M. L. Hecht & S. L. Lindsley (Eds.), Redefining culture: Perspectives across the disciplines (pp ). New Jersey: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates. Hu, D. R. (2005). Cultural studies on curriculum reform. Beijing: Jiaoyu Kexue Chubanshe. Hu, H. K. (1997). Responsiveness Ancient Chinese view of Nature. Journal of dialectics of nature. 19(4) Hua, S. (1995). Scientism and humanism: Two cultures in post-mao China ( ). Albany: State University of New York Press. Huang, S. J. (1984). The basic contents of Marxist view of Nature. Journal of Henan Normal University (Social Science)

19 REFERENCES Hung, E. (1997). The nature of science: Problems and perspectives. Belmont, CA: Wadsworth Publishing Company. Jiang, G. H. (1991). Zhengti, zhijue, quxiang bilei ji qita [Holism, intuition, analogy and others]. In P. Zhao (Ed.), Zhongguo siwei pianxiang [The inclination of Chinese ways of thinking] (pp ). Beijing: Zhongguo Shehui Kexue Chubanshe. Jin, L. X. (2000). Qingchu Zhi YaPian Zhanzheng Qiande Jiaoyu [Education from early Qing Dynasty until before the Opium War]. In P. Q. Sun (Ed), Zhongguo Jiaoyu Shi [History of Chinese Education] (pp ). Shanghai: Huadong Shifan Daxue Chubanshe. Kawasaki, K. (1996). The concept of science in Japanese and Western education. Science & Education, 5(1), Kecheng Jiaocai Yanjiusuo. (2003). Wuli [Physics] (Year 9). Beijing: Renmin Jiaoyu Chubanshe. Keller, A. (1984). Has science created technology? Minerva, 22(2), Kuang, B. L. (1991). Zhongguo chuantong siwei fangshi zai jindai de biange [the change of the traditional Chinese ways of thinking in modern times]. In P. Zhao (Ed.), Zhongguo siwei pianxiang [The inclination of Chinese ways of thinking] (pp ). Beijing: Zhongguo Shehui Kexue Chubanshe. Kuhn, T. (1962). The structure of scientific revolutions. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. Kuhn, T. (1970). Logic of discovery or psychology of research? In I. Lakatos & A. Musgrave (Eds.), Criticism and the growth of knowledge (pp. 1 23). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Kvale, S. (1996). Interviews: An introduction to qualitative research interviewing. Thousand Oaks, CA, London & New Delhi: Sage Publications. Kwok, D. W. Y. (1965). Scientism in Chinese thought New Haven & London: Yale University Press. Lakatos, I. (1970). Falsification and the methodology of scientific research programmes. In I. Lakatos & A. Musgrave (Eds.), Criticism and the growth of knowledge (pp ). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Lakatos, I. (1978). The methodology of scientific research programmes (Vol. 1). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Lederman, N. G. (1992). Students and teachers conceptions of the nature of science: A review of the research. Journal of Research in Science Teaching, 29(4), Lee, S. K. (2003). Traditional East Asian views of nature revisited. In A. K. L. Chan, G. K. Clancey & H. Loy (Eds.), Historical perspectives on East Asian science, technology and medicine. Singapore: Singapore University Press & World Scientific. Leplin, J. (2006). Realism. In S. Sarkar & J. Pfeifer (Eds.), The philosophy of science - An encyclopedia (Vol. 2, pp ). New York & London: Routledge. Lewis, B. F., & Aikenhead, G. S. (2001). Introduction: Shifting perspectives from universalism to crossculturalism. Science Education, 85(1), 3 5. Li, X. M. (2004). Zhongguo xiandai kexue sichao [The trend of thought on science in modern China]. Beijing: Kexue Chubanshe. Liang, B. Z. (2004). Tongzhi, yizhi, yu xifang yixue [The same, the different, and the Western medicine]. In T. J. Chen, Z. Y. Xu & Z. Y. Guan (Eds.), Xitong shiye yu yuzhou rensheng [The systematic vision and the cosmo-life] (pp ). Guilin: Guangxi Shifan Daxue Chubanshe. Liang, Y. H. & Chen, C. (1993). Purposes and requirements for teaching of chemistry in secondary schools. In Y. J. Liu (Ed.), Book of Major Educational Events in China ( ) (Vol. 1, p ). Hangzhou: Zhejiang Jiaoyu Chubanshe. Lin, W. Z. (1996). A brief account of Chinese studies of the history of science and technology in China. In D. Fan, & R. S. Cohen (Eds.), K. Dugan & M. S. Jiang (Trans.), Chinses Studies in the History and Philosophy of Science and Technology (pp ). Dordrecht, Boston & London: Kluwer Academic Publishers (Original work published 1981). Liu, C. L. (1991). Siwei fangshi yu zhongguo wenhua de xuanze [Ways of thinking and the choice of Chinese culture]. In P. Zhao (Ed.), Zhongguo siwei pianxiang [The inclination of Chinese ways of thinking] (pp. 1 6). Beijing: Zhongguo Shehui Kexue Chubanshe. 105

20 REFERENCES Liu, S. Z. (1987). Ziran [Nature]. In Zhongguo Da Baike Quanshu - Zhexue [The encyclopaedia of China - Philosophy] (p. 1253). Beijing & Shanghai: Zhongguo Da Baike Quanshu Chubanshe. Liu, Z. Y. (Ed.). (2003). Shengwu [Biology] (Year 7, Vol. 1). Shijiazhuang: Hebei Shaonian Ertong Chubanshe. Lu, S. M. (1982). Xian Qin Shi [History of Pre-qin periods]. Shanghai: Shanghai Guji Chubanshe. Lynch, M. (2006). Social constructionism. In S. Sarkar & J. Pfeifer (Eds.), The philosophy of science An encyclopedia (Vol. 2, pp ). New York & London: Routledge. Ma, H. (2009). Chinese secondary school science teachers understanding of the nature of science Emerging from their views of Nature. Research in Science Education, 39(5), Ma, H. (2011). Chinese teachers views of teaching culturally related knowledge in school science. In D. Corrigan, J. Dillon, & R. Gunstone (Eds.), The professional knowledge base of science teaching (pp ). Heidelberg, New York, & London: Springer. Matthews, M. R. (1994). Science teaching: The role of history and philosophy of science. New York & London: Routledge. McComas, W. F., Clough, M. P., & Almazroa, H. (1998). The role and character of the nature of science in science education. In W. F. McComas (Ed.), The nature of science in science education: Rationales and strategies (pp. 3 39). Dordrecht, Boston, & London: Kluwer Academic Publishers. McKinley, E. (2007). Postcolonialism, indigenous students, and science education. In S. K. Abell & N. G. Lederman (Eds.), Handbook of research on science education (pp ). Mahwah, NJ & London: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates. McNamara, S., & Song, X. K. (1995). Traditional Chinese Medicine. London: Hamish Hamilton. Meng, P. Y. (1991). Zhongguo chuantong siwei fangshi de jiben tezheng [The basic characteristics of Chinese traditional ways of thinking]. In P. Zhao (Ed.), Zhongguo siwei pianxiang [The inclination of Chinese ways of thinking] (pp ). Beijing: Zhongguo Shehui Kexue Chubanshe. Ministry of Education (People s Republic of China). (2002). Quanrizhi putong gaoji zhongxue lishi jiaoxue dagang [History syllabus for the full-time general senior high school]. Beijing: Renmin Jiaoyu Chubanshe. Ministry of Education (People s Republic of China). (2003). Kexue kecheng biaozhun (7 9 nianji) [Science curriculum standards (Grade 7 9)]. Retrieved from sci-m.htm Mu, X. Y. (2003). Wuli kecheng jiegou yu gongneng biange [The reform of the structure and function of Physics curricula]. In B. Q. Liao, X. Y. Mu, F. Chen, X. J. Wang & Y. L. Zhao (Eds.), Zhongxue wuli kecheng gaige de mubiao yu shishi [The aim and practice of the reform of secondary school Physics curricula] (pp ). Beijing: Gaodeng Jiaoyu Chunbanshe. Needham, J. (1956). Science and civilisation in China, (Vol. 2: History of scientific thought). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Nickles, T. (2006). Problem of demarcation. In S. Sarkar & J. Pfeifer (Eds.), The philosophy of science - An encyclopedia (Vol. 1, pp ). New York & London: Routledge. Nisbett, R. E., Peng, K., Choi, I., & Norenzayan, A. (2001). Culture and systems of thought: Holistic versus analytic cognition. Psychological Review, 108(2), Ogawa, M. (1998). A cultural history of science education in Japan: An epic description. In W. W. Cobern (Ed.), Socio-cultural perspectives on science education: An international dialogue (pp ). Dordrecht, Boston, & London: Kluwer Academic Publishers. Ou, J. C. (2005). Dang zhongyi yushang xiyi [When Chinese Medicine meets Western Medicine]. Beijing: Sanlian Shudian. Peng, K., & Nisbett, R. E. (1999). Culture, dialectics, and reasoning about contradiction. American Psychologist, 54(9), Polanyi, M. (1967). The tacit dimension. London: Routledge & Kegan Paul Ltd. Popper, K. R. (1963). Conjectures and refutations. London: Routledge and Kegan Paul. Qu, T. H., & Li, J. (2005). The lack of spirit of science in modern science education in China and its revelation. Journal of Northeast Normal University (Philosophy and Social Science), 6,

21 REFERENCES Quine, W. V. O. (1951). Main trends in recent philosophy: Two dogmas of empiricism. The Philosophical Review, 60(1), Reiss, M. J. (1993). Science education for a pluralist society. Buckingham: Open University Press. Renmin Jiiaoyu Chubanshe Huaxueshi. (2003). Huaxue [Chemistry] (Vol. 2). Beijing: Renmin Jiaoyu Chubanshe. Rosaldo, R. I. (2006). Forword: Defining culture. In J. R. Baldwin, S. L. Faulkner, M. L. Hecht & S. L. Lindsley (Eds.), Redefining culture: Perspectives across the disciplines (pp. ix-xiii). New Jersey: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates. Rosenberg, N. (1982). Inside the black box Technology and economics. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Said, E. (1995). Orientalism. London: Penguin. Shi, Z. Y. (2000). Education and the national cultural safety. Theory and Practice of Education, 20(11), Siegel, H. (2002). Muticulturalism, universalism, and science education: In search of common ground. Science Education, 86(6), Sillitoe, P. (Ed.) (2007). Local science vs. global science: Approaches to indigenous knowledge in international development. New York, NY: Berghan Books. Snively, G. (1995). Bridging traditional science and western science in the multicultural classroom. In G. Snively & A. MacKinnon (Eds.), Thinking globally about mathematics and science education (pp ). Vancouver: University of British Columbia, Research and Development Group. Soifer, V. N. (1994). Lysenko and the tragedy of Soviet science. New York: Rutgers University Press. Stanford, P. K. (2006). Instrumentalism. In S. Sarkar & J. Pfeifer (Eds.), The philosophy of science - An encyclopedia (Vol. 1, pp ). New York & London: Routledge. Stanley, W. B., & Brickhouse, N. W. (1994). Multiculturalism, universalism, and science education. Science Education, 78(4), Stanley, W. B., & Brickhouse, N. W. (2001). Teaching sciences: The multicultural question revisited. Science Education, 85(1), Stein, H. (1989). Yes, But... Some skeptical remarks on realism and anti-realism. Dialectica, 43(1 2), Stephens, S. (2001). Handbook for culturally responsive science curriculum. Fairbanks, Alaska: Alaska Native Knowledge Network. Tang, Y. J. (2001). Luelun bainianlai zhongguo wenha shang de zhongxigujing zhizheng [On the debates about Chinese, Western, Traditional, and Modern in the past one hundred years]. Chinese Culture Research, 2, Taylor, C. A. (1996). Defining science A rhetoric of demarcation. Madison: The University of Wisconsin Press. Taylor, K. (2003). Improving Chinese medicine: The role of traditional medicine in newly communist China, In A. K. L. Chan, G. K. Clancey & H. Loy (Eds.), Historical perspectives on East Asian science, technology and medicine (pp ). Singapore: Singapore University Press & World Scientific. Taylor, P. C., & Cobern, W. W. (1998). Towards a critical science education. In W. W. Cobern (Ed.), Socio-cultural perspectives on science education: An international dialogue (pp ). Dordrecht, Boston, & London: Kluwer Academic Publishers. Wang, L. X. (2000). Yangwu Yundong Shiqi De Jiaoyu [Education in the Westernisation Movement]. In P. Q. Sun (Ed), Zhongguo Jiaoyu Shi [History of Chinese Education] (pp ). Shanghai: Huadong Shifan Daxue Chubanshe. Wang, Q., & Jin, F. (2004). Zhongguo jishu sixiangshi lun [On the history of technological thinking in China]. Beijing: Kexue Chubanshe. Wang, W. D., Wang, Z. L., & Wang, L. (2000). Mohu yixue lilun chutan yu baojian [A preliminary study on the theories of fuzzy medicine and hygiene]. Tianjin: Tianjin Kexue Jishu Chubanshe. Wang, Y. (2004). On specialized science education in ancient China. Journal of Fujian Normal University, 2,

22 REFERENCES Wang, Z. L. (1995). Shijie de wuzhi tongyixing [The material unity of the world]. In X. L. Li, Y. Wang & H. C. Li (Eds.), Bianzheng weiwuzhuyi he lishi weiwuzhuyi yuanli [The principles of dialectical materialism and historical materialism] (4th ed., pp ). Beijing: Zhongguo Renmin Daxue Chubanshe. Woodrow, D. (2001). Cultural determination of curricula, theories and practices. Pedagogy, Culture and Society, 9(1), Wu, C. (2002). Gudai zhongguo kexue fanxing [Paradigms of science in ancient China]. Beijing: Zhonghua shuju. Xiao, P. (2004). Tian ren he yi yu wu wo er fen [Holism and dualism]. In X. Y. Xu (Ed.), Zhongxi wenhua bijiao [The comparison between Chinese culture and Western culture] (pp ). Beijing: Peking University Press. Xu, H. (2004). The evolution of Chinese science outlook in the 20th century. Journal of Renmin University of China 6, Xu, L. Y., & Fan, D. N. (1982). Science and socialist construction in China (J. C. S. Hsu, Trans.). Armonk & New York: M. E. Sharpe, Inc. (Original work published 1957.) Xu, Y. H. (1991). Xianqin daojia de zhijue siwei [The intuitive thinking of Daoists before the Qin Dynasty]. In P. Zhao (Ed.), Zhongguo siwei pianxiang [The inclination of Chinese ways of thinking] (pp ). Beijing: Zhongguo Shehui Kexue Chubanshe. Yang, G. R. (2001). Lun wusi shiqi de kexue zhuyi [Scientism during the May 4th period]. In B. Hao & Z. S. Ouyang (Eds.), Wusi yundong yu ershi shiji de zhongguo [The May 4th Movement and China in the 20th century] (pp ). Beijing: Shehui Kexue Wenxian Chubanshe. Yang, R. (2002). Third delight: The internationalization of higher education in China. New York & London: Routledge. Ye, P. M. (1993). What to teach and teaching materials for biology in secondary schools. In Y. J. Liu (Ed.), Book of Major Educational Events in China ( ) (Vol.1, pp ). Hangzhou: Zhejiang Jiaoyu Chubanshe. Ye, X. Q. (2003). Regulating the medical profession in China: Health policies of the nationalist government. In A. K. L. Chan, G. K. Clancey & H. C. Loy (Eds.), Historical perspectives on East Asian science, technology and medicine (pp ). Singapore: Singapore University Press & World Scientific. Yue, M. J. (2001). Cong sai xiansheng dao kejiao xingguo [From Mr. Science to Flourishing the country with science and education ]. In B. Hao & Z. S. Ouyang (Eds.), Wusi yundong yu ershi shiji de zhongguo [The May 4th Movement and China in the 20th century] (pp ). Beijing: Shehui Kexue Wenxian Chubanshe. Zhang, D. M. & Lin, H. Q. (1993). Development of medical colleges and universities. In Y. J. Liu (Ed.), Book of Major Educational Events in China ( ) (Vol. 2, pp ). Hangzhou: Zhejiang Jiaoyu Chubanshe. Zhang, D. Z. (2004). Kongzhilun zai zhongyixue shang de yingyong [The application of cybernetics in traditional Chinese medicine]. In D. Z. Zhang (Ed.), Zhongyi wenhua duitan lu [The dialogue about the culture of traditional Chinese medicine] (pp ). Guilin: Guangxi Shifan Daxue Chubanshe. Zhang, D. Z., & Mao, S. S. (2004). Dongxifang siwei de jiehe [The combination of Eastern and Western ways of thinking]. In D. Z. Zhang (Ed.), Zhongyi wenhua duitan lu [The dialogue about the culture of traditional Chinese medicine] (pp ). Guilin: Guangxi Shifan Daxue Chubanshe. Zhongguo Shehui Kexueyuan Yuyan Yanjiusuo Cidian Bianjishi (ZSKYYCB). (2005). Xiandai hanyu cidian [Dictionary of contemporary Chinese]. Beijing: Shangwu Yinshuguan. Zhu, H. X. (2005). Kexue jiaoyu de lishi fazhan [The history of science education]. In H. X. Zhu (Ed.), Kexue jiaoyu daolun [On science education] (pp. 1 32). Beijing Zhongguo Huanjing Kexue Chubanshe. Zhu, X. M. (2001). Saixiansheng yijiu renzhong daoyuan [There is still much to do with science]. In B. Hao & Z. S. Ouyang (Eds.), Wusi yundong yu ershi shiji de zhongguo [The May 4th 108

23 REFERENCES Movement and China in the 20th century] (pp ). Beijing: Shehui Kexue Wenxian Chubanshe. Ziman, J. M. (1968). Public knowledge. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Zimmermann, E., & Gilbert, J. K. (1998). Contradictory views of the nature of science held by a Brazilian secondary school physics teacher: Educational value of interviews. Educational Research and Evaluation, 4(3),

24 INDEX A Aikenhead, G. S, 1, 5 8, 76 77, 82 Almazroa, H., 106 Ames, R. T., 12 Ancient China, 6, 9, 11, 15, 17, 19, 23, 33, 37 39, 45, B Baldwin, J. R., 104, 107 Brickhouse, N. W., 76 Buck, P., 9 C Cai, M., Categories of knowledge system, 6 Charlesworth, M., Chen, C., Cheng Yi, 14, 20 Chinese Communist Party Central Committee (CCP CC), 43 Chinese culture, x, xi, 1, 6, 8 9, 11 23, 33, 37, 43, 64 65, 67, 73, 77 78, 80, Chinese medical improvement schools, 46 Chinese native knowledge, xi, 7 8, 23, 28, 30, 33, 37, 41, 44, 46, 63, 71, 78, Chinese science education, xi, 7, 23, 30, 32, 36 47, 49 72, 77, 80 82, 84 Chinese traditional culture, xi, 1, 8 10, 18, 20, 28, 33, 35, 42, 61 62, 64, 80, 84 Chinese traditional knowledge, 8, 22 Choi, I., 19 Chuan Xi Lu, Chun Qiu Fan Lu, 15 Clough, M. P., 106 Cobern, W. W., 5, 76 Compendium of Materia Medica, 45 Confucian, 14 15, 17, 28 29, 38 40, 61 Conservatism, 80 Constructivism, 73 76, 81 Constructivist, 2 4, 57, 75 Cross-cultural practice, 5, 7 Cultural Revolution, 32, 42 Culture-free view, 55 56, 58 Culture-laden view, 55, 60 D Dao De Jing, 11, 13, 15 demarcate science, 24 Deng Xiao Ping, dialectical materialism, 17 18, 32, 42, 77 discovery of Arsenic, 45 Dong ZhongShu, 15 Driver, D., 4 Duan, Z. W., 31 Duhem, P., 25 Duhem-Quine thesis, 25 Du, S. R., 28 29, 40 E education for examination, 43 empirical scientism, entity realism, 74 epistemological anarchism, 25 Eurocentric science, 6 8, 24, 44, F Falsifiability, 24 Fan, D. N., 41 Fan, H. Y., 29, 32 Faulkner, S. L., 104, 107 Feyerabend, P., 25 Fosnot, C. T., 3 Four modernisations, 43 Franklin, A., 74 Fung, Y. L., 20 G Gao, S. L., 40 Geertz, C., 2 George, J. M., Ge Zhi, Gilbert, J. K., 109 Godfrey-Smith, P., 27 Groenfeldt, D., 7 Gross, P., 75 Gu, Z. K., 33 H Hacking, I., 74 Hall, D., 12 Hall, S., 2 3, 9 Han, D., 38, 46 Han, Q., 28 29, 40 Harding, S., 7, 26, 59, 79 Harmony, 15, 18, 20, 30, 34, 55, 64, 66, 79 Hart, R., 8 Hayhoe, R., 32, 41 Hecht, M. L., 2 Holism, xi, 19, 35, 83 Host knowledge system, 5 6, Huang Di Nei Jing, 14 Huang, S. J., 17 Hua, S., 32, 77 Hu, D. R., 43 Hu, H. K., 14 Humanised nature, Hung, E., hypothetico-deductive,