中國的科學與中國的公民：大陸研究在台灣的困境\\

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1 * the Family and Medical Leave Act, FMLA FMLA FMLA the Family and Medical Leave Act, FMLA *

2 266 FMLA Glenn, 1997 FMLA FMLA Policy Formulation FMLA FMLA FMLA FMLA Dunn, 1994; Starling, 1988; Quade, 1989; Weimer & Vining, 1998 FMLA

3 Starling, 1988: 69; Rochefort & Cobb, 1994 Quade, 1989; Weimer & Vining, 1998; Starling, 1988: 69; Rochefort & Cobb, 1994 Kingdom, 1995; Cohen, March & Olsen, 1972 rationalism March & Simon, 1958; Lindblom, 1959; Wildavsky, 1979 FMLA P. Schroeder Hartmann, 1989; Schroeder, 1989 agenda bias bias in systemic agenda bias in institutional agenda Starling, 1988: Garbage Can Theory Cohen, March & Olsen, 1972

4 FMLA 268 FMLA FMLA FMLA FMLA FMLA FMLA formulation FMLA FMLA FMLA FM

5 U. S. Bureau of Labor Statistics & U. S. Dept. of Labor, 1988; U. S. Dept. of Labor, 1988 U. S. Bureau of Labor Statistics, sandwich generation Crawford, 1999; Halle,1998; Bacchi, 1990 Kamerman, 1991 the Parental and Disability Leave Act, H. R Patricia Schroeder 2 Pregnancy Discrimination Act, PDA Stetson, 1997; Huckle, 1988 P. Schroeder 1 2 Staff of Subcomm. On Hum. Service of the House Select Comm, on Aging., 100th Cong., 1st Sess., Exploding the Myths: Caregiving in America 18 (Comm. Print 1987). H. R. 2020, 99th Cong., 1st Sess., 131 Cong. Rec. H1941 (daily ed. Apr. 4, 1985).

6 270 FMLA P. Schroeder Hartmann, 1989; Schroeder, P. Schroeder P. Schroeder William Clay the Parental and Medical Leave Act Christopher Dodd S Mezacappa, 1985; Radigan, 1988 P.Schroeder William Clay H. R S CQ Weekly Report, 1989: 243 the Family and Medical Leave Act, FMLA P. Schroeder Heymann, S. J., Earle, A. and Egleston, B. (1996). 99th Cong., 2nd Sess., 132 Cong. Rec. S3973 (daily ed. Apr. 9, 1986). 101st Cong., 1st Sess., 135 Cong. Rec. H165 (daily ed. Feb. 2, 1989). 101st Cong., 1st Sess., 135 Cong. Rec. S1099 (daily ed. Feb. 2, 1989).

7 FMLA FMLA Glenn, 1997 Hertz, 1999; Schroeder, 1988 Eisenstein, 1988 Rayman, 1999; Malveaux, 1994 Kanter, 1989: 291 Ehrlich & Garland, 1988 Bernstein, 1986; Ehrlich & Garland, 1988; Hewlett, 1989; Meisenheimer, 1989; Schwartz, 1989; Hochschild, 1994; Waldfogel, 1998 Rayman, 1999;

8 272 FMLA Racino, 1998; Bookman, 1991 FMLA % % ,240 46, ,200 48, ,543 51, ,211 55, ,475 55, ,393 56, ,613 57, ,631 59, ,235 60, ,487 61, ,696 61, ,755 62, ,503 63, ,709 63, ,050 64, ,413 65, ,658 66, ,742 66, ,030 67, ,554 68, ,893 69, U.S. Department of Commerce, Statistical Abstract of the

9 United States, 1993 (Washington, D.C.: U.S. Bureau of Census, 1993), p U.S. Department of Commerce, Statistical Abstract of the United States, 1978 (Washington, D.C.: U.S. Bureau of Census, 1978), p. 399.

10 274 FMLA FMLA the National Organization of Women, NOW National Religious Associations Associations of Health Professionals FMLA the Women s Legal Defense Fund, WLDF NOW Eisenstein, 1988 the League of Women Voters NOW WLDF Congressional Quarterly Almanac, 1987

11 Tugwell, 1968 Mayer, 1985 Rawls, 1971; MacRae, 1971 Lindblom, FMLA FMLA FMLA American Federation of Labor-Congress of Industrial Organizations, AFL-CIO the Association of Federal, State, County, and Municipal Employees, AFSCME the National Education Association, NEA the American Association of Retired Persons, AARP AFL-CIO AFSCME NEA the Service Employees International Union, SEIU John J. Sweeney 7 7 The Family and Medical Leave Act of 1987, Joint H. R.. Hearings before the

12 276 FMLA John J. Sweeney Kodak Bernstein, A the Chamber of Commerce the National Association of Manufacturers the National Foundation of Independent Business, NFIB the American Society of Personal Administrators Harbrecht & Garland, 1988; Hewlett, 1986; Kantrowitz & Wingert, 1989; Recio, 1987 NFIB Small Business Administration s National Advisory Committee the Senate Small Business Committee s National Advisory Committee 8 Butler & Wasserman, Subcommittee on Labor-Management Relations and the Subcommittee on Labor Standards, 100th Congress, 1st Session (1987), p. 44. The Family and Medical Leave Act of 1989, H. R. 770: Hearings before the Committee on Education and Labor and Subcommittee on Labor-Management Relations, 101 st Congress, 1 st Session, (1989, Febrary 7), p. 124.

13 Radigan, 1988 Virginia Lamp House Subcommittee on Labor-Management Relations The Family and Medical Leave Act of 1987 FMLA FMLA Radigan, 1988 Congressional Quarterly, 1993; Marano, 1997 Radigan, 1988; Burstein, P., 1997; Greenberg & Skocpol, 1997 House Education and Labor Committee Subcommittee on Labor Management Relations

14 278 FMLA the Family and Medical Leave Act Radigan, 1988 FMLA, H. R. 925 Radigan, 1988 Congressional Quarterly Almanac, 1987 Radigan, 1988 Congressional Quarterly Almanac, 1987 the Post Office and Civil Service Committee FMLA

15 Meyer & Kim, 1998 Yolanda Ortega Chrzanowski American Federation of Government 9 Earl Hess 10 FMLA, H. R. 770 Kantrowitz & Wingert, The Family and Medical Leave Act of 1987: Joint H. R. Hearings before the Subcommittee on Labor-Management Relations and the Subcommittee on Labor Standards, 100 th Congress, 1 st Session, p The Family and Medical Leave Act of 1989, H. R. 770: Hearings before the Committee on Education and Labor and Subcommittee on Labor-Management Relations, 101 st Congress, 1 st Session, (1989, Febrary 7), p. 97.

16 280 FMLA House Floor U.S. Congress, House, 1990 George Bush Holmes, J. W. Kingdon, 1995: political stream override 12 Diemer, Clymer, 1992a 11 FMLA FMLA 12 National Federation of Independent Business John Motleygreat great day Diemer, 1990

17 Clymer, 1992b FMLA Policy Window Kingdom, 1995 Bill Clinton FMLA FMLA Ruess, 1993 Zuckman, 1993 Ruhm, Schroeder and Clay

18 282 FMLA H. R veto 7 25 override override override

20 284 FMLA outcome process FMLA (1) U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics, 1978, Employment and Earnings, January 1978 and earlier issues, Washington, D.C.: Government Printing Office. (2) U.S. Department of Commerce, 1992, Statistical Abstract of the United States, 1992, Washington, D.C.: Bureau of Census, p (1) U.S. Bureau of the Census, 1975, Current Population Reports, series p. 60. Nos. 41, 53, 80, and 97. (2) U.S. Department of Commerce, 1993, Statistical Abstract of the United States, 1993, Washington, D.C.: Bureau of Census, p. 426.

21 PDA PDA WLDF NOW the League of Women Voters 17 FMLA 17 AARP

22 286 FMLA 18 Kamerman et al., 1983 Sheinberg, 1988: 214 FMLA 18

23 Trzcinski, 1991: 221 FMLA 1,250 FMLA Waldfogel, 1999 FMLA FMLA FMLA FMLA FMLA FMLA FMLA FMLA Frank & Lipner, 1988; Hewitt, 1958; Kamerman et al., 1983; Quataert, 1979 FMLA FMLA FMLA Esping-Anderson, 1990

24 FMLA 288 FMLA FMLA FMLA FMLA FMLA FMLA FMLA FMLA FMLA FMLA FMLA FMLA

26 290 FMLA Bacchi, C. L. (1990). Same Difference: Feminism and Sexual Difference. Sydney, Australia: Allen and Unwin. Bernstein, A. (1986, October 6). Business Starts Tailoring Itself to Suit Working Women. Business Week, pp Bernstein, A. (1997). Inside or Outside? The Politics of Family and Medical Leave. Policy Studies Journal, 25(1), pp Bookman, A. (1991). Parenting Without Poverty: The Case for Funded Parental Leave. In J. S. Hyde & M. J. Essex (Eds.), Parental Leave and Child Care: Setting a Research and Policy Agenda (pp ). Philadelphia: Temple University Press. Burstein, P. (1997). Problem Definition and Public Policy: Congressional Committees Confront Work, Family and Gender, , Social Forces, 76, pp Butler, B., & Wasserman, J. (1988). Parental Leave: Attitudes and Practices in Small Businesses. In E. Zigler & M. Frank (Eds.), Prenatal Leave Crisis: Toward a National Policy (pp ). New Haven, CT: Yale University Press. Clymer, A. (1992a, September 11). House Passes Family Leave in Face of Bush Veto Threat. New York Times, p. A10. Clymer, A. (1992b, October 1). House Votes to Sustain President s Veto of the Family-Leave Bill. New York Times, p. A13. Cohen, M., March, J., & Olsen, J. (1972, March). A Garbage Can Model of Organizational Choice. Administrative Science Quarterly, 17(2), pp Congressional Quarterly Almanac (Volume XLIII). (1987). Washington: Congressional Quarterly, Inc. Congressional Quarterly Inc. (1993). Key Votes: Veto Cloud Looms over 1992 Floor Fights. Congressional Roll Call 1992: A Chronology and

27 Analysis of Votes in the House and Senate, 102nd Cong., 2d Sess. Washington, D.C. CQ Weekly Report. (1989, February 4), Washington D.C.: Congressional Quarterly, Inc., 47(5), p Crawford, J. M. (1999). Co-Parent Adoptions by Same-Sex Couples: From Loophole to Law. Families in Society, 80(3), pp Diemer, T. (1990, July 26). Bush Veto of Workers Leave Upheld. Cleveland Plain Dealer, p. 2A. Dunn, William N. (1994). Public Policy Analysis: An Introduction (2nd ed.). Englewood Cliffs, N.J.: Prentice-Hall. Ehrlich, E., & Garland, S. (1988, September 19). For American Business: A New World of Workers. Business Week, pp Eisenstein, Z. R. (1988). The Female Body and the Law. Berkeley: University of California Press. Esping-Anderson, G. (1990). The Three Worlds of Welfare Capitalism. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press. Frank, M., & Lipner, R. (1988). History of Maternity Leave in Europe and the United States. In E. Zigler & M. Frank (Eds.), Parental Leave Crisis: Toward a National Policy (pp. 3-22). New Haven, CT: Yale University Press. Glenn, N. D. 1997). State and the Family: A Comparative Analysis of Family Policies in Industrialized Countries. Social Forces, 76(2), pp Greenberg, S. B., & Skocpol, T. (1997). Democratic Possibilities: A Family-Centered Politics. American Prospect, 35, pp Halle, T. (1998). What Policymakers Need to Know about Fathers. Policy and Practice of Public Human Services, 56(3), pp Harbrecht, D., & Garland, S. B. (1988, September 26). A Bush Flip-Flop Gives Life to the Parental Leave Bill. Business Week, p. 61. Hartmann, S. M. (1989). From Margin to Mainstream: American Women and Politics since New York: Alfred A. Knopf.

28 292 FMLA Hertz, R. (1999). Working to Place Family at the Center of Life: Dual-Earner and Single-Parent Strategies. Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science, 562, pp Hewitt, M. (1958). Wives and Mothers in Victorian Industry. Westport, CT: Greenwood Press. Hewlett, S. A. (1986). A Lesser Life: The Myth of Women s Liberation in America. New York: William Morrow. Hewlett, S. A. (1989). Family Support Policy? Consult the Bottom Line. Management Review, 78, pp Heymann, S. J., Earle, A., & Egleston, B. (1996). Parental Availability for the Care of Sick Children. Pediatrics, 98(2), pp Hochschild, A. R. (1994). What s Happening to the Family: Friendly Reforms in the Workplace. SWS Network News, 11, p. 5. Holmes, S. A. (1990, June 30). Bush Vetoes a Bill to Give Workers Family Leave. New York Times, p. 9. Huckle, P. (1988). The Womb Factor: Policy on Pregnancy and the Employment of Women. In E. Boneparth & E. Stoper (Eds.), Women, Power and Policy: Toward the Year 2000 (2nd ed.). New York: Pergamon Press. Kamerman, S. B. (1991). Parental Leave and Infant Care: U.S. and International Trends and Issues, In J. S. Hyde & M. J. Essex (Eds.), Parental Leave and Child Care: Setting a Research and Policy Agenda (pp ). Philadelphia: Temple University Press. Kamerman, S. B., Kahn, A. J., & Kingston, P. (1983). Maternity Policies and Working Women. New York: Columbia University Press. Kanter, R. M. (1989). When Giants Learn to Dance: Mastering the Challenge of Strategy, Management, and Careers in the 1990s. New York: Simon and Schuster. Kantrowitz, B., & Wingert, P. (1989, June 5). Parental Leave Cries to be Born. Newsweek, p. 65.

29 Kingdon, John W. (1995). Agendas, Alternatives, and Public Policies (2nd ed.). Harper Collins College Publishers. Lindblom, Charles E. (1959, Spring). The Science of Muddling Through. Public Administration Review, 14(1), pp MacRae, Ducan, Jr. (1971). Scientific Communication, Ethical Argument, and Public Policy. The American Political Science Review, 65(1), pp Malveaux, J. (1994). Gender: Guaranteeing Real Equality. In R. Caplan & J. Feffer (Eds.), State of Union 1994: The Clinton Administration (pp ). Boulder, CO: Westview Press. Marano, H. E. (1997). A New Focus on Family Values. Psychology Today, 30, pp March, James G., & Simon, Herbert A. (1958). Organizations. New York: Wiley. Mayer, R. R. (1985). Policy and Program Planning: A Development Perspective. Englewood Cliffs, N. J.: Prentice-Hall. Meisenheimer, J. R., II. (1989). Employer Provisions for Parental Leave. Monthly Labor Review, 112, pp Meyer, D. R., & Kim, R. Y. (1998). Estimating a Proposed Family Policy s Effects: Incorporating Labor Supply Responses to an Assured Child Support Benefit. Journal of Family Issues, 19(5), pp Mezacappa, D. (1985, November 24). So a Worker Can Get Time Out for a Baby. Philadelphia Inquirer, p. 1-I. Quade, E. S. (1989). Analysis for Public Decision, New York: North Holland. Quataert, J. H. (1979). Reluctant Feminists in German Social Democracy, Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press. Racino, J. A. (1998). Innovations in Family Support: What Are We Learning? Journal of Child and Family Studies, 7(4), pp Radigan, A. L. (1988). Concept and Compromise: The Evaluation of Family Leave Legislation in the U.S. Congress. Washington, D.C.:

30 294 FMLA Women s Research and Educational Institute. Rawls, J. (1971). A Theory of Justice. Cambridge Mass: Harvard University Press. Rayman, P. M. (1999). Creating a Research and Public Policy Agenda for Work, and Community. Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science, 562, pp Recio, M. E. (1987, April 6). Should Business be Forced to Help Bring Up Baby? The Battle over Mandated Benefits Such as Parental Leave. Business Week, pp Rochefort, David A., & Cobb, Roger W. (1994). The Politics of Problem Definition: Shaping the Policy Agenda. KS: University Press of Kansas. Ruess, M. (1993, February 3). Family Leave Bill Reported Sailing toward Passage. Cleveland Plain Dealer, p. 3-A. Ruhm, Christopher J. (1997). Policy Watch: The Family and Medical Leave Act. The Journal of Economic Perspectives, 11(3), pp Schroeder, P. 1988). Parental Leave: The Need for a Federal Policy. In E. Zigler & M. Frank (Eds.), The Parental Leave Crisis: Toward a National Policy (pp ). New Haven, CT: Yale University Press. Schroeder, P. (1989). Champion of the Great American Family. New York: Random House. Schwartz, F. N. (1989). Management, Women and the New Facts of Life. Harvard Business Review, 67, pp Sheinberg, R. (1988). Parental Leave Policies of Large Firms. In E. Zigler & M. Frank (Eds.), The Parental Leave Crisis: Toward a National Policy (pp ). New Haven, CT: Yale University Press. Starling, Grover. (1988). Strategies for Policy Making. Illinois: Dorsey Press. Stetson, Dorothy M. (1991). Women s Rights in the U.S.A.: Policy Debates and Gender Roles. New York, NY: Garland Publishing Inc. Trzcinski, E. (1991). Employers Parental Leave Policies: Does the Labor

31 Market Provide Parental Leave? In J. S. Hyde & M. E. Essex (Eds.), Parental Leave and Child Care: Setting a Research and Policy Agenda (pp ). Philadelphia: Temple University Press. Tugwell, Rexford. (1968). The Brains Trust. N. Y.: Uiking Press. U. S. Bureau of Labor Statistics & U. S. Department of Labor. (3d qtr. 1987). Employment in Perspective: Women in the Labor Force, Rep. No. 747, at 2. U. S. Bureau of Labor Statistics & U. S. Department of Labor. (1988). Employment and Earnings, 159, table 2. U.S. Department of Labor. (1988). Opportunity 2000: Creative Affirmative Action Strategies for a Changing Workforce. Washington, D.C.: Government Printing Office. U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics. (Jan and earlier issues). Employment and Earnings. Washington, D.C.: Government Printing Office. U.S. Bureau of the Census. (1975). Current Population Reports, series p. 60. Nos. 41, 53, 80, and 97. U.S. Congress, House. (1987). The Family and Medical Leave Act of 1987: Joint H. R. Hearings before the Subcommittee on Labor-Management Relations and the Subcommittee on Labor Standards, 100th Cong. 1st Sess. Washington, D.C.: U.S. Government Printing Office. U.S. Congress, House. (1989). The Family and Medical Leave Act of 1989, H. R. 770: Hearings before the Committee on Education and Labor and Subcommittee on Labor-Management Relations, 101st Cong., 1st Sess. Washington, D.C.: U.S. Government Printing Office. U.S. Congress, House. (1990). Debate on the Family and Medical Leave Act, H. R. 770, 101st Cong. 2d. Sess. Washington, D.C.: U.S. Government Printing Office. U.S. Department of Commerce. (1978). Statistical Abstract of the United States, Washington, D.C.: Bureau of Census.

32 296 FMLA U.S. Department of Commerce. (1992). Statistical Abstract of the United States, Washington, D.C.: Bureau of Census. U.S. Department of Commerce. (1993). Statistical Abstract of the United States, Washington, D.C.: Bureau of Census. Waldfogel, Jane. (1998). Understanding the Family Gap in Pay for Women with Children. Journal of Economic Perspectives, 12(1), pp Waldfogel, Jane. (1999). The Impact of the Family and Medical Leave Act. Journal of Policy Analysis and Management, 18(2), pp Weimer, David L. & Vining, Aidan. (1998). Policy Analysis: Concepts and Practices (3rd ed.). NJ: Prentice Hall Press. Wildavsky, Aaron. (1979). The Politics of the Budgetary Process (3rd ed.). Boston: Little Brown. Zuckman, J. (1993, February 6). As Family Leave is Enacted, Some See End to Logjam. Congressional Quarterly Weekly Report, 51, pp

33 A Study on the Policy Formulation of FMLA in the U. S. A. Lee-Joy Cheng* Abstract President Bill Clinton signed the Family and Medical Leave Act (FMLA) into law on February 5, The eventual promulgation of FMLA represents the culmination of eight years of conflict and compromise; hence, the law constitutes an excellent case study of a family policy that became embroiled in partisan conflict. After first describing the problematic features of the law in its historical context, this study goes on to examine the partisan compromises made in Congress and the efforts of various interest groups to influence the passage of FMLA from the policy formulation perspective. This paper argues that the nature of the family and the workforce in the U.S. has changed dramatically in recent decades, and that despite this, no new legislation addressing the different needs of the family and the workforce is planned. Rather, this study concludes that no single theory alone is enough to explain FMLA s passage; only a combination of insights from economic, political and ideological perspectives will allow us to grasp the whole picture of FMLA s policy-making process in the U. S. Keywords: Family and Medical Leave Act (FMLA), family policy, partisan conflict, interest groups *University of Pittsburgh, Ph.D., Associate Research Fellow, Institute of European and American Studies, Academia Sinica.

2 2000 88

Easton 1953p.153 Lasswell Kaplan1970 p.71 attainability Anderson1976p.2 Dye1995p.3 2000 p.8-10 1. 2. 3. 4. problem-solving oriented 1970 CHU-90-H-004 1 2 2000 88 (pluralistic civil society) 1. 2. 3. 4.