Primer Volume 1

Transcription

1 A Primer in Chinese Buddhist Writings Volume One: Foundations John Kieschnick and Simon Wiles

2 Acknowledgments Rupert Gethin suffered through the first incarnation of this volume, providing helpful corrections that all readers should be grateful for. Marcus Bingenheimer, David Carpenter, Kin Cheung, Rafal Felbur, Tom Mazanec and Adrian Tiethof-Aronson caught many mistakes and provided advice on what worked and what didn't. Bhikkhu Dhamma-dāsa and Jason Protass gave useful advice on vocabulary and structure. Adeana McNicholl caught a further slew of errors that slipped through and suggested many improvements. Finally, Simon Wiles put so much work into this volume from Sanskrit reconstructions and tone corrections to formatting and design that he should be considered as co-author. In this and in the subsequent volumes, I have drawn heavily on Charles A Muller ed., Digital Dictionary of Buddhism. Please send corrections and suggestions to: John.Kieschnick@stanford.edu April, 2017

3 Table of Contents Introduction...iii Pronunciation...iii Characters...iv Grammar...v Lessons in Grammar...1 Lesson 1: Subject + Predicate...1 Lesson 2: The Implicit Subject...6 Lesson 3: Time Words...11 Lesson 4: Negation...17 Lesson 5: yǐ 以...24 Lesson 6: suǒ 所...30 Lesson 7: gù 故, reason...35 Lesson 8: zhě 者...41 Lesson 9: Grammatical Flexibility...47 Lesson 10: Parallel and Rhythm...52 The Scripture of the Great Origin (Dàběn jīng 大本經 )...56 Introduction to the Dàbĕn jīng 大本經...56 Selected passages from the Dàběn jīng...57 i

4 Introduction Close to two thousand years of Buddhism in China have produced a wealth of writings on Buddhist subjects. These include Indian texts (many no longer extant in their original language) translated into Chinese in medieval times; works on various aspects of Buddhist doctrine written originally in Chinese; biographies of monks and chronologies of Buddhist history; liturgical writings with musical notation, epigraphy commemorating devotional societies, monasteries, stupas and icons; poetry and letters on Buddhist themes; autobiography; and official court documents relating to Buddhism. Each of these genres follows its own conventions and employs distinctive vocabulary. Most require not just knowledge of Buddhist texts, but familiarity with other genres of Chinese writing as well. In short, Buddhist texts encompasses a vast literature more than any one scholar could hope to master in a lifetime. This course can at most introduce some of the vocabulary and grammatical conventions of a few of these genres. In most Chinese programs at Western universities, the student begins by studying modern Chinese for a year or two before studying classical Chinese. After a year of classical Chinese (reading philosophical works like the Analects of Confucius, historical works like the Shǐjì or Zuǒzhuàn, and literary works like the Book of Poetry and Tang poems), 1 the student is exposed to Buddhist writings. But some students particularly those interested in Chinese chiefly as a means of accessing texts originally written in India are understandably reluctant to invest three years of intensive study of works unrelated to Buddhism before beginning to read Buddhist texts in Chinese. It is in fact possible for Indologists to learn to read medieval Chinese translations of Indian Buddhist texts directly, without previous knowledge of Chinese. In this course, I attempt to satisfy both types of students. We begin with a series of lessons that introduce basic vocabulary and grammar, drawing on one authentic text and then read through the prose sections of this text in their entirety. Readers already familiar with the basics of modern or classical Chinese can cover the first ten lessons in one or two sittings, while those with no previous knowledge of Chinese will require more time (memorizing characters becomes easier with time the hardest characters to memorize are the first 100). Pronunciation The dominant form of Chinese today is Mandarin. Like all forms of Chinese, Mandarin is tonal: the same sound, pronounced in different tones can mean radically different things. In medieval times, when most of the texts provided below were composed or translated, there were more tones, and the pronunciation differed significantly. This explains in part why medieval transliterations of Sanskrit words (like Fótuó 佛陀 1 Two good introductions to literary Chinese are Michael A. Fuller, An Introduction to Literary Chinese (Cambridge MA: Harvard University Press, 2004), and Paul Rouzer, A New Practical Primer of Literary Chinese (Cambridge MA: Harvard University Press, 2007). Mark Lewis provides an excellent reader in philosophical Chinese texts, including English translations for self-study, for free at: ii

5 for Buddha) in modern Mandarin pronunciation often do not sound much like their Sanskrit equivalents (the medieval pronunciation of the word was probably much closer to Buddha ). Linguists, working with rhymed poetry as well as translations of foreign terms, have made various attempts to reconstruct medieval pronunciations of Chinese words. 2 While Mandarin is the official language of the PRC and Taiwan, used in news broadcasts and political speeches, many other forms of Chinese are also in use. For the most part, these share grammar and vocabulary with Mandarin. Some, probably owing to geographic isolation, have changed less rapidly over time than others and preserve more ancient pronunciations. For this reason, Cantonese (spoken in Canton [Guangdong] and Hong Kong) and Minnan (spoken in southern Fujian and Taiwan) are probably closer to the way Chinese was spoken in the capital in the Tang dynasty than Mandarin is. Nonetheless, for the purposes of this course, I gloss all terms according to Mandarin pronunciation, the basis for most modern dictionaries of Chinese. Various systems have been used to romanize Chinese (represent Chinese with Roman letters). The dominant system today is pīnyīn, a system developed in the PRC. Proper pronunciation of Mandarin is best learned with recordings and a native speaker (much of the first year of a modern Chinese course is spent mastering tones). Absent a teacher, your best option is to learn from an introduction to pinyin with recordings (e.g. ). Online videos with native speakers are also useful. Characters Each Chinese character is pronounced with a single syllable. Words can, however, be composed with more than one character. For example, the word for disciple, dìzi 弟子 is composed of the two characters dì 弟 and zi 子. In archaic Chinese, words composed of two or more characters were relatively few. From medieval times to the present they have become increasingly common. There are various styles of writing characters. The earliest Chinese characters are those found on the oracle bones, dating to ca B.C. Discovered by scholars only in the twentieth century, these characters are quite different from later Chinese and are only decipherable by specialists. In contrast, from circa 200 BC on, the way characters are written has changed relatively little. An educated Chinese person with minimal training can recognize the characters in most medieval manuscripts, even if he or she doesn t understand the overall meaning of the text. 3 The standard division of characters into different types is that first proposed by Xǔ Shèn 許慎 in his dictionary of Chinese, the Shuōwén jiězì 說文解字 (Explanations of Graphs and Analysis of Characters) at the beginning of the second century. He proposed six types of characters: 2 See for instance Edwin G. Pulleyblank, Lexicon of Reconstructed Pronunciation in Early Middle Chinese, Late Middle Chinese and Early Mandarin (Vancouver: University of British Columbia Press, 1991). The historical phonology of Chinese is a hotly contested field; there is as yet no firm consensus on how Chinese sounded in medieval times. 3 There are exceptions. Medieval manuscripts (in particular epigraphy) makes frequent use of unusual forms for characters that are only recognized by specialists. iii

6 1) zhǐ shì 指事, pointing to things. These are characters that symbolize ideas, e.g. xià 下 for down and shàng 上 for up. 2) xiàng xíng 象形, imitating shapes. These are words that derive from pictograms like rì 日 sun and yuè 月, moon. 3) xíng shēng 形聲, form and sound. Characters that combine two graphs, one representing the sound and one the meaning. For example, in the word kǎo 烤, to roast, the part on the left 火 means fire; the part on the right 考 has nothing to do with the meaning, representing instead the sound of the character. 4) huì yì 會意, combined meanings. For example míng 明 combines sun (rì 日 ) and moon (yuè 月 ) and means bright. 5) zhǔan zhù 轉注, transferred notation, an obscure category for words with similar meaning written with similar graphs. 6) jiǎ jiè 假借, borrowing, where a character is used for another of the same or similar sound. For practical purposes, these categories are not particularly useful for learning characters; they do, however, illustrate that Chinese characters are not simple pictograms. When first learning characters, some students invent their own folk etymologies as a mnemonic device. Some use flashcards, and others go over lists. Since many elements of characters are repeated in different characters, the more characters you know, the easier they are to memorize. The most difficult phase of learning characters is the first. Each Chinese character has been assigned a radical. 4 This is an element of the character (or in some cases the character as a whole) that can be used to find the character in a dictionary. As on-line dictionaries and digital resources become more common, allowing the reader to cut and paste unknown characters into an on-line dictionary, radicals will become less important for finding characters. In the second part of the course you will be given instruction in the use of dictionaries. For the first part you will be given glossaries designed especially for this course. None the less, you may want to experiment with on-line dictionaries (links provided separately) which are easy enough to use. Since the texts for this class are available here, you can cut and paste them into on-line dictionaries relatively easily. Grammar There is very little morphology in Chinese; that is, changes in the form of words to convey different meanings. 5 There are no conjugations or tenses. For understanding classical texts, it is most important to 4 Today, the most common list of radicals consists of 214 radicals, laid out in a dictionary compiled at the behest of the eighteenth-century emperor Kangxi 康熙. For a complete list, see 5 There is as yet no good grammar for Buddhist Chinese texts, but there is a good grammar for Classical Chinese in general: Edwin G. Pulleyblank, Outline of Classical Chinese Grammar (Vancouver: University of British Columbia Press, 1995). iv

7 recognize the function of a small set of grammatical particles, to note parallelisms (that is, if we are given a series of five-character lines, the word order is usually the same for each of the lines), and above all, familiarity with vocabulary. It is often possible to interpret a given line in various ways, taking a given word, for instance, as either a verb or a noun. In such cases, the key is context: how is a given word used elsewhere in the same text and, the strongest argument of all: what makes sense. I have provided an English translation key separately. But your goal should be to reach a point at which you are able to pronounce and translate the passages listed in the review sections without recourse to the translation or to any notes of your own. When I have used this volume in the classroom, I do not allow students to consult the translation in class or to refer to notes when translating from the review sections. v

8 Lessons in Grammar Lesson 1: Subject + Predicate Grammar The three basic rules of Chinese word order are: 1) the subject precedes the predicate; 2) a modifier precedes the word it modifies; and 3) the verb precedes its object (Pulleyblank, p.14). There are exceptions to all of these rules. Below are examples of the first of these rules subject + predicate taken from the Cháng āhán jīng 長阿含經, the Chinese translation of the Dīrghāgama. In the following examples, translate the line or passage that follows the vocabulary. Example 1.1 竺佛念 Zhú Fóniàn Name of monk 譯 yì to translate The beginning of the Cháng āhán jīng records the translator of the text as follows: 竺佛念譯 The object, the sutra itself, is understood. 1

9 Example 1.2 人 rén man, men, people 壽 shòu lifespan 八 bā eight 萬 wàn ten thousand 歲 suì years The Cháng āhán jīng, describing conditions at the time of a previous Buddha, states that during the time of that Buddha... 人壽八萬歲 Example 1.3 迦葉 Jiāshè (Skt.) Kāśyapa (a Buddha of the Past) 佛 fó Buddha 坐 zuò to sit 尼拘律樹 níjūlǜshù (type of tree), (Skt.) nyagrodha 下 xià beneath Before his enlightenment, one of the Buddhas of the past did the following: 迦葉佛坐尼拘律樹下 Example 1.4 尸棄 Shīqì (Skt.) Śikhin (a Buddha of the Past) 有 yǒu to have, to possess 二 èr two 弟子 dìzi disciple 2

10 尸棄佛有二弟子 Example 1.5 我 wǒ I, me, mine 父 fù father 名 míng to be named 淨飯 Jìngfàn (personal name) Skt. Śuddhodana (translates śuddha, pure + odana, boiled rice ) In this line, the Buddha is speaking: 我父名淨飯 Note that, depending on context, the same word can be read as a verb or a noun. 名 can be either name or to be named. Example 1.6 告 gào to tell, to announce to 比丘 bǐqiū bhikṣu This phrase introduces a statement by the Buddha. 佛告比丘 Example 1.7 此 cǐ this, these 是 shì to be; this; thus 常 cháng constant, enduring, eternal 法 fǎ law, Skt. dharma 3

11 The text describes patterns common to all of the Buddhas of the past, concluding each description of a particular facet of a Buddha's life (e.g. being born with special physical marks) with the following passage: 此是常法 Example 1.8 如 rú like, as 聞 wén to hear The Chang ahan jing, after listing the translators and date of translation, begins with the phrase: 如是我聞 Note that 是 is not here a verb; in classical Chinese, it rarely is. Example 1.9 諸 zhū all 對 duì to respond, to answer After the Buddha asks his disciples a question, the following phrase introduces their response: 諸比丘對... Example 1.10 智慧 zhìhuì wisdom; wisdom and insight 增益 zēngyì to increase When a Buddha is in his mother's womb, this happens to the mother: 智慧增益 4

12 Review 1 You should now be able to translate the following passages without consulting the vocabulary lists: 1.1 竺佛念譯 1.2 人壽八萬歲 1.3 迦葉佛坐尼拘律樹下 1.4 尸棄佛有二弟子 1.5 我父名淨飯 1.6 佛告比丘 1.7 此是常法 1.8 如是我聞 1.9 諸比丘對 智慧增益 5

13 Lesson 2: The Implicit Subject We saw in the last lesson that Chinese sentences can usually be divided into a subject and a predicate. However, the subject is often unexpressed in declarative sentences when it can be understood from context. The preceding example ( 智慧增益 ) comes close since it is understood from context that it is the mother's wisdom that increases. In the examples below the subject is entirely implicit. Example 2.1 在 zài at 舍衛 Shèwèi (Skt.) Śrāvastī 國 guó kingdom 祇樹 Qíshù An abbreviation of 祇樹給孤獨園 (Skt. Jetavana Anāthapiṇḍada-ārāma) 花林窟 Huālínkū (Skt.) Kareri-kuṭikā; literally Flower-copse Cave 大 dà big, great 與 yǔ together, with 比丘 bǐqiū bhikṣu 眾 zhòng assembly 千 qīan thousand 二 èr two 百 bǎi hundred 五 wǔ five 十 shí ten 人 rén man, men, people 俱 jù together 佛在舍衛國祇樹花林窟與大比丘眾千二百五十人俱 Note that in this passage, the preposition 與 ( with ) works with the verb 俱 ( together ). 6

14 Example 2.2 唯 wéi only; (a sentence-opening particle with no translatable meaning) 無上尊 wúshàngzūn without superior, exalted one 為 wéi to be, is 最 zuì most 奇特 qítè special, remarkable 神通 shéntōng lit. divine perspicacity ; Skt. abhijñā, divine powers, supernormal powers, supernormal cognitions. 遠達 yuǎn dá far reaching 威力 wēilì authority, power, might 弘大 hóngdà great, expansive 唯無上尊為最奇特 神通遠達 威力弘大 Note here that, in addition to dropping the subject in the second part of the sentence, no copula (verb like to be ) is necessary in the second part of the sentence either. Example 2.3 入 rù to enter 於 yú (preposition) in, at 涅槃 nièpán nirvana 斷 duàn to cut off 結使 jiéshǐ lit. bounds and manipulations ; afflictions 消滅 xiāomiè to destroy, to dispense with 戱 xì funny, playful, absurd, fanciful, frivolous 論 lùn discourse, discussion, theory, deliberations 諸佛入於涅槃 斷諸結使 消滅戱論 7

15 Again, once the subject ( 諸佛 ) is understood, it is not necessary to repeat it for the following phrases. Example 2.4 戒 jiè precepts; morality; (Skt. śīla) 慧 huì Wisdom, insight After describing the qualities of a Buddha, the text concludes: 佛有如是戒 有如是法 有如是慧 Example 2.5 世尊 Shìzūn World-Honored One 閑靜 xiánjìng peaceful and quiet 處 chù place 天耳 tiāněr divine ear (one of the supernormal powers of a buddha) 清淨 qīngjìng pure 作 zuò to do, to make 議 yì discussion, argument, opinion After describing a discussion among the Buddha's disciples when the Buddha was not present, the text continues: 世尊在閑靜處 天耳清淨 聞諸比丘作如是議 Example 2.6 8

16 諦 dì carefully 聽 tīng to listen 善 shàn well 思念 sīniàn think on, contemplate 之 zhī it 佛告諸比丘 諦聽 諦聽 善思念之 The verbs in quotations could, grammatically, refer to the Buddha himself. We know they are commands from the context. Example 2.7 成 chéng to complete, to accomplish 最正覺 zuìzhèngjué Lit. most correct awakening, Skt. abhisaṃbuddha 迦葉佛坐尼拘律樹下成最正覺 9

17 Review 佛在舍衛國祇樹花林窟與大比丘眾千二百五十人俱 2.2 唯無上尊為最奇特 神通遠達 威力弘大 2.3 諸佛入於涅槃 斷諸結使 消滅戱論 2.4 佛有如是戒 有如是法 有如是慧 2.5 世尊在閑靜處 天耳清淨 聞諸比丘作如是議 2.6 佛告諸比丘 諦聽 諦聽 善思念之 2.7 迦葉佛坐尼拘律樹下成最正覺 10

18 Lesson 3: Time Words Time is expressed through time words and in some cases grammatical particles. We will look at grammatical particles later. Example 3.1 shí 時, time or when, is probably the most common word indicating time. 一 yī one 時 shí time 舍衛 Shèwèi (Skt.) Śrāvastī 國 guó kingdom 祇樹 Qíshù Jeta Grove, an abbreviation of 祇樹給孤獨園 (Skt. Jetavana Anāthapiṇḍada-ārāma), 樹 = grove 花林窟 Huālínkū Flower Copse Grotto (Skt. Kareri-kuṭikā), 窟 = grotto 一時, 佛在舍衛國祇樹花林窟 Example 3.2 頌 sòng in verse 曰 yuē to say 佛時頌曰... 11

19 Example 3.3 爾 ěr that 閑靜 xiánjìng peaceful and quiet 處 chù place 爾時, 世尊在閑靜處 Example 3.4 受 shòu to receive 教 jiào teaching 而 ér [verbal connector] and, but; [adverbial connector, with the preceding word or phrase modifying the verb that follows] 聽 tīng to listen 時, 諸比丘受教而聽 Example 3.5 過去 is a common compound, meaning in the past. 12

20 過去 guòqù the past 無數 wúshù without number, limitless 入 rù to enter 涅槃 nièpán nirvana 斷 duàn to cut off 結使 jiéshǐ lit. bounds and manipulations ; afflictions, defilements 消滅 xiāomiè to destroy 戱 xì funny, playful, absurd, fanciful 論 lùn discourse, theory, deliberations 過去無數諸佛入於涅槃 斷諸結使 消滅戱論 Example 3.6 三 sān three 劫 jié aeon (transliteration of kalpa) 尸棄 Shīqì (Skt.) Śikhin 如來 rúlái Thus-Come-One, Skt. tathāgata (we have already seen 如 as thus in 如是我聞 ) 至 zhì utmost; extreme, most 真 zhēn true 至真 zhìzhēn most-true-one (a translation of arhat). 過去三十一劫, 有佛名尸棄, 如來至真 13

21 Example 3.7 即 jí then, next, thereupon 從 cóng from 座 zuò seat 起 qǐ to arise, get up The Buddha, sitting apart from the bhikṣus, uses his supernormal powers to hear them converse. Then... 聞諸比丘作如是議 即從座起 Example 3.8 相師 xiàngshī fortune teller, master of physiognomy 白 bái white; to address 王 wáng king 言 yán to say 時, 諸相師即白王言

22 Example 3.9 於 yú multi-purpose particle (see note below). 乞 qǐ to beg 食 shí food; to eat 集 jí to gather 花林 Huālín Flower Copse 堂 táng hall 諸比丘於乞食後集花林堂 hòu 後, after, appears in the middle of sentences, between verbs. Here hòu is working together with the particle yú. Yú 於 is a preposition which can be used for space (i.e. at ) or, as here, for time. Example 3.10 太子 tàizǐ prince 剃除 tìchú to cut off 鬚髮 xūfǎ hair and beard 太子於後即剃除鬚髮 15

23 Review 一時, 佛在舍衛國祇樹花林窟 3.2 佛時頌曰 爾時, 世尊在閑靜處 3.4 時, 諸比丘受教而聽 3.5 過去無數諸佛入於涅槃 斷諸結使 消滅戱論 3.6 過去三十一劫, 有佛名尸棄, 如來至真 3.7 聞諸比丘作如是議 即從座起 3.8 時, 諸相師即白王言 諸比丘於乞食後集花林堂 3.10 太子於後即剃除鬚髮 16

24 Lesson 4: Negation One of the most common negatives is bù 不. In declarative sentences, it comes before the word it negates. Example 4.1 毘婆尸 Pípóshī (Skt.) Vipaśyin 菩薩 púsà bodhisattva 母 mǔ mother 胎 tāi womb 專 zhuān to concentrate 念 niàn to think, to ponder 亂 luàn chaos, confusion 毘婆尸菩薩在母胎時, 專念不亂 Note: Grammatically, 專念不亂 could refer to either the bodhisattva or to his mother. The implicit subject is usually carried over from the previous sentence. From the context of the larger passage that we see that it refers to the bodhisattva. 17

25 Example 4.2 In questions, bù 不 can come at the very end of a sentence, and can be translated or not. This construction is particularly common in Buddhist texts. 吾 wú I, me 今 jīn today, now 欲 yù to want, to desire 以 yǐ ( 以 is a co-verb, meaning it works in conjunction with another verb. We will look at this word more closely in a later lesson). To use, to employ; with, by means of 宿命智 sùmìngzhì knowledge of past lives (lit. past-destinies-wisdom) 說 shuō say, expound, relate, explain 事 shì thing, event 汝 rǔ you 世尊告諸比丘 : 吾今欲以宿命智說過去佛事 汝欲聞不? Example 4.3 Wú 無 normally indicates non-existence (often negating to have yǒu 有 ), meaning there is no... In these cases, it takes a noun as its object. It is also used, as below, in double negatives. Immediately upon the Buddha's birth, a great light fills the universe. The light is so great that... 處 chù place 闇冥 ànmíng darkness 無 wú not, none 蒙 méng to receive 明 míng brightness 闇冥之處, 無不蒙明 18

26 Example 4.4: 數 shù number 過去無數諸佛入於涅槃 斷諸結使 消滅戱論 Example 4.5 毘婆尸 Pípóshī (Skt.) Vipaśyin (a Buddha of the Past) 從 cóng from 兜率 Dōushuài Tuṣita 天 tiān Heaven; god, deva 降 jiàng to descend 神 shén divine; spirit 胎 tāi womb 身 shēn body; physically 安隱 ānyǐn serene, at peace 惱患 nǎohuàn troubles, difficulties 毘婆尸菩薩從兜率天降神母胎, 專念不亂 母身安隱, 無眾惱患 Note: Grammatically, the phrase 降神母胎 could be read either as he descended in spirit into his mother s womb or he descended into the divine mother s womb. We know from context (and that fact that 神母 is not a common term for a Buddha s mother) that the former is correct. Example 4.6: fēi 非 非 is the negative copula meaning is not. Normally, it is itself a verb and takes a noun as object. In the following passage, the text describes how the gods protect the newly born Bodhisattva from various sorts of beings, including both 人 and 非人 19

27 四 sì four 天子 tiānzǐ lit. children of heaven, heavenly beings, minor deities 執 zhí to hold 戈 gé halberd 矛 máo spear 侍 shì to attend 護 hù to protect 其 qí his [grammatical particle] 得 dé to be able to 侵嬈 qīnrǎo to harass 有四天子執戈矛侍護其人 人與非人不得侵嬈 此是常法 Example 4.7 間 jiān between, among 憒閙 kuìnào hubub, noise 此 cǐ this, these 宜 yí appropriate Before leaving the palace, the bodhisattva determines that... 人間憒閙, 此非我宜 20

28 Example 4.8: wù 勿. wù 勿 is imperative, do not. 天 tiān heavenly, celestial 母 mǔ mother 天母 tiānmǔ here: queen 生 shēng to be born 聖 shèng holy 子 zǐ child; son 懷 huái to harbor 憂慼 yōuqī worries and sadness Just before the bodhisattva's mother gives birth, four deities tell her: 天母, 今生聖子 勿懷憂慼 此是常法 Example 4.9 使 shǐ to cause, to make 眾生 zhòngshēng all beings 墜落 zhuìluò to fall, to descend to 餘 yú other, remaining 趣 qù destination, realm, path of existence When the Buddha hesitates to preach the Dharma, Brahma pleads with him to do so, saying: 勿使眾生墜落餘趣 21

29 Example 4.10: wèi 未, not yet 去 qù to leave 久 jiǔ long (duration) 其去未久... 22

30 Review 毘婆尸菩薩在母胎時, 專念不亂 4.2 世尊告諸比丘 : 吾今欲以宿命智說過去佛事 汝欲聞不? 4.3 闇冥之處, 無不蒙明 4.4 過去無數諸佛入於涅槃 斷諸結使 消滅戱論 4.5 毘婆尸菩薩從兜率天降神母胎, 專念不亂 母身安隱, 無眾惱患 4.6 有四天子執戈矛侍護其人 人與非人不得侵嬈 此是常法 4.7 人間憒閙, 此非我宜 4.8 天母, 今生聖子 勿懷憂慼 此是常法 4.9 勿使眾生墜落餘趣 4.10 其去未久... 23

31 Lesson 5: yǐ 以 以 is a co-verb, meaning to take, use; with, by means of. Example 5.1 答 dá to answer, to reply 具 jù together The Buddha returns to a gathering of his disciples and asks them what they have been discussing... 時, 諸比丘具以事答 Example 5.2 宿命智 sùmìngzhì knowledge of past lives (lit. past-destinies-wisdom) 吾今欲以宿命智說過去佛事 汝欲聞不? Example 5.3 善哉 shànzāi excellent! ( 哉 marks the previous as emphatic the equivalent of an exclamation mark) 平等 píngděng equal, with equanimity 信 xìn faith 修 xiū to cultivate, practice 道 dào the Way, path, the Tao; to speak 善哉! 善哉! 汝等以平等信, 出家修道 24

32 Note that in this example děng is used in two different ways: first as a plural marker, and then as part of a compound indicating equanimity. Example 5.4 After his enlightenment, the Buddha is reluctant to preach since he fears the beings of the world will not be able to understand his teachings. Brahma insists that there are some in the world who are capable of receiving his teachings. The Buddha then decides to have a look for himself... 眼 yǎn eye 觀 guān to observe 視 shì to see, to view 世界 shìjiè world 即以佛眼觀視世界 Example 5.5 以 can also be used to express purpose, and thereby, in order to. 手 shǒu hand 執 zhí to grasp, to hold 白 bái white 蓋 gài parasol 寶 bǎo precious; jeweled 扇 shàn fan 障 zhàng to impede, to protect from 寒 hán cold 暑 shǔ summer; heat When the bodhisattva is born, devas protect the infant by doing the following: 25

33 手執白蓋 寶扇, 以障寒暑 Example 5.6 增 zēng to increase 伎 jì performers 樂 yuè music; musicians (note that this word can also be read lè in which case it means happiness ) 悅 yuè to be pleased; to please 心 xīn heart, mind To keep the bodhisattva from leaving the palace, his father did the following: 增諸伎樂以悅其心 Example 5.7 泉 quán fountain, spring 湧 yǒng to bubble forth, to spring forth 出 chū out; to merge, go out 溫 wēn warm 冷 lěng cold; cool 供 gòng to supply 澡浴 zǎoyù bath; to bathe Immediately after the bodhisattva's birth, the following happened: 二泉湧出一溫一冷 以供澡浴 此是常法 26

34 Example 5.8 簡擇 jiǎnzé to select 婇 cǎi beautiful; colourful 女 nǚ woman, women 娛 yú to entertain 樂 lè happy, joyful; pleasure To keep the bodhisattva at home, his father... 簡擇婇女以娛樂之 Example 5.9 The phrase shìyǐ 是以 means because of, therefore. 道 dào road 逢 féng to meet 老 lǎo old The king asks the bodhisattva's attendant why the boy is not happy. The attendant replies: 道逢老人 是以不樂 27

35 Example 5.10 默 mò silence, quiet 然 rán (suffix forming stative verb, describing a continuing action or state) When Brahma encourages the Buddha to preach the Dharma, he explains that the people of the world are not receptive to his teachings, concluding by saying... 是以默然, 不欲說法 28

36 Review 時, 諸比丘具以事答 5.2 吾今欲以宿命智說過去佛事 汝欲聞不? 5.3 善哉! 善哉! 汝等以平等信, 出家修道 5.4 即以佛眼觀視世界 5.5 手執白蓋 寶扇, 以障寒暑 5.6 增諸伎樂以悅其心 5.7 二泉湧出一溫一冷 以供澡浴 此是常法 5.8 簡擇婇女以娛樂之 5.9 道逢老人 是以不樂 5.10 是以默然, 不欲說法 29

37 Lesson 6: suǒ 所 suǒ 所 is a common relative pronoun, normally meaning where, which, that which, or what depending on context. As a noun it means place, location. Example 6.1 When placed before a verb or verb phrase, 所 turns it into a noun. 所 indicates that the noun receives the action of the verb. Below, it is not that the monks hear the Buddha speak, but that they hear that which the Buddha spoke. The distinction here isn't that important, but in other contexts it is. 諸比丘聞佛所說 Example 6.2 汝等所論 This is a noun phrase rather than a complete sentence. Example 6.3 治 zhì to govern 城 chéng city 王所治城 This is a noun phrase rather than a complete sentence. 30

38 Example 6.4 日 rì sun 月 yuè moon 及 jí to reach 處 chù place, location 日月所不及處 This is a noun phrase rather than a complete sentence. Example 6.5 因緣 yīnyuán lit. causes and conditions; story; here: circumstances 名號 mínghào lit. name and style name ; here: name 種族 zhǒngzú class 此是諸佛因緣 名號 種族 所出生處 Example 6.6 相 xiàng characteristic, mark (this is why 相師 lit. master of marks means fortune teller). 子 zǐ son; child 時, 諸相師即白王言 : 王所生子有三十二相 31

39 Example 6.7 何 hé what 語 yǔ to speak (yù); words, language, speech 汝等集此, 何所語議? Example 6.8 梵 Fàn Brahma 天 tiān deity, Skt. deva; heaven 知 zhī to know, to recognize 毘婆尸 Pípóshī (Skt.) Vipaśyin (a Buddha of the Past) 時, 梵天王知毘婆尸如來所念 Example 6.9 清淨 qīngjìng clear and pure 欲 yù desire; desirous 想 xiǎng to think; thoughts 為 wéi (we have already seen 為 as meaning to be here it marks the verb as passive) by 婬 yín lasciviousness; lust 火 huǒ fire 燒然 shāorán to burn 佛告比丘 : 毘婆尸菩薩從兜率天降神母胎, 專念不亂 母心清淨, 無 眾欲想, 不為婬火之所燒然 此是諸佛常法 32

40 Example 6.10 乃 nǎi to the extent that 多少 duōshǎo lit. many and few ; amount 又 Yòu further, moreover 彼 bǐ that (pronoun) 名號 mínghào name and style name 姓字 xìngzì surname and cognomen 比丘, 唯無上尊為最奇特 神通遠達 威力弘大, 乃知過去無數諸佛入 於涅槃 斷諸結使 消滅戱論 又知彼佛劫數多少 名號 姓字 所生 種族 33

41 Review 諸比丘聞佛所說 6.2 汝等所論 6.3 王所治城 6.4 日月所不及處 6.5 此是諸佛因緣 名號 種族 所出生處 6.6 時, 諸相師即白王言 : 王所生子有三十二相 6.7 汝等集此, 何所語議? 6.8 時, 梵天王知毘婆尸如來所念 6.9 佛告比丘 : 毘婆尸菩薩從兜率天降神母胎, 專念不亂 母心清淨, 無眾欲 想, 不為婬火之所燒然 此是諸佛常法 6.10 比丘, 唯無上尊為最奇特 神通遠達 威力弘大, 乃知過去無數諸佛入於涅 槃 斷諸結使 消滅戱論 又知彼佛劫數多少 名號 姓字 所生種族 34

42 Lesson 7: gù 故, reason In Buddhist texts, 故 most often appears at the end of a sentence, meaning for this reason or because of what preceded it. It can also appear at the beginning of a sentence, meaning therefore, for this reason. Example 7.1 故我默然不欲說法 Example 7.2 愛 ài love, affection; craving 滅 mìe to destroy (we have seen this word in the compound 消 滅. The meaning is identical). 取 qǔ grasping, taking What follows is part of a description of the twelve-fold chain of causation. 愛滅故取滅 Example 7.3 安和 Ānhé lit. Peaceful Harmony. Here, a personal name, (P.) Sotthi (Skt.) Svāstika. 隨 suí to follow; according to 王名安和 隨王名故城名安和 35

43 Example 7.4 老 lǎo old 死 sǐ death 憂 yōu worry, grief 悲 bēi sadness, sorrow 苦惱 kǔ nǎo suffering, affliction We return here to the twelve-fold chain of causation. 生滅故老 死 憂 悲 苦惱滅 Example 7.5 兩 liǎng the pair; both 相 xiāng mutually (we saw this word earlier pronounced xiàng and meaning mark or characteristic ) 俱 jù both 汙 wū to stain, to sully The following is a metaphor which describes the condition of a pure gem placed on a clean piece of silk. 兩不相汙 二俱淨故 36

44 Example 7.6 問 wèn to ask, to inquire 答 dá to reply, to answer 曰 yuē to say 夫 fú (an introductory particle announcing a topic) 者 zhě (here, a particle marking off a topic. We will examine this word more closely in the next lesson) 生 shēng life (we have seen this word earlier meaning to give birth and to arise) 向 xiàng (preposition) towards 盡 jìn termination, ending 命 mìng destiny, life 幾 jǐ several, few 謂 wèi to say to, to address; to call, to label After seeing his first old man, the bodhisattva asks his charioteer to explain. 又問 何如為老? 答曰 夫老者, 生壽向盡 餘命無幾 故謂之老 Example 7.7 故 gù intentionally (we have seen 故 earlier in another meaning, as cause ) The Buddha has already used his supernormal powers to overhear a conversation, but nonetheless... 爾時, 世尊, 知而故問, 謂諸比丘 : 汝等集此, 何所語議? 37

45 Example 7.8 父 fù father 彼 bǐ that, those 者 zhě (particle that nominalizes the preceding verb, in this case he who attends, attendant ) 遊 yóu to travel, to wander 歡 huān joyous, blissful 樂 lè happy 耶 yé (particle indicating a question) 爾時, 父王問彼侍者 太子出遊, 歡樂不耶? 答曰 不樂 又問其 故 Example 7.9 病 bìng sick 痛 tòng pain 迫切 pòqiè to press upon 存亡 cúnwáng to live and to die, survival 期 qī date, appointment; to predict, to know in advance 也 yě (final particle serving function of the verb to be ) 問曰 何如為病? 答曰 病者, 眾痛迫切 存亡無期 故曰病也 38

46 Example 7.10 故 often works together with 以, meaning for this reason, because. 慈悲 cíbēi compassion 為 wèi for the sake of, in order to (we have previously seen 為 in the second tone meaning to be and elsewhere indicating the passive, by ). 真諦 zhēndì noble truth In one of the verses (which I omitted from the text you will read below), the Buddha explains why he explained the Four Noble Truths. 以慈悲心故, 為說四真諦 39

47 Review 故我默然不欲說法 7.2 愛滅故取滅 7.3 王名安和 隨王名故城名安和 7.4 生滅故老 死 憂 悲 苦惱滅 7.5 兩不相汙 二俱淨故 7.6 又問 何如為老? 答曰 夫老者, 生壽向盡 餘命無幾 故謂之老 7.7 爾時, 世尊, 知而故問, 謂諸比丘 : 汝等集此, 何所語議? 7.8 爾時, 父王問彼侍者 太子出遊, 歡樂不耶? 答曰 不樂 又問其故 7.9 問曰 何如為病? 答曰 病者, 眾痛迫切 存亡無期 故曰病也 7.10 以慈悲心故, 為說四真諦 40

48 Lesson 8: zhě 者 者 is most commonly used as a nominalizer; it makes a verb or verb phrase, or adjective a noun or noun phrase the person or thing who carries out the verb or possesses the quality of the adjective. Example 8.1 者 can often be translated as one who is... 何 hé what; why; how 智 zhì wisdom, intelligence 歡喜 huānxǐ happy, delighted 何有智者聞此因緣而不歡喜 起愛樂心? Note: There are two ways to read the 者 here. Either it is modifying the verb 有 (one who has wisdom) or it is just modifying the adjective 智 (How could there exist a wise person who...). Example 8.2 When the Bodhisattva, on a ride with his chariot driver outside the palace, for the first time sees a sick man... 顧 gù to look at 太子顧問侍者 此為何人? 41

49 Example 8.3 出 chū to leave 家 jiā family, household 調伏 tiáofú to tame 心意 xīnyì intention 夫出家者, 欲調伏心意 Example 8.4 御 yù to drive 沙門 shāmén Skt. śramaṇa 御者答曰 此是沙門 Example 8.5 為 wèi for the sake of; to be 信 xìn faith Here the Buddha explains whom he will speak to. 今為信受樂聽者說 42

50 Example 8.6 者 does not always come immediately after the verb it nominalizes. We have seen this already in 8.1. 當 dāng will; should 趣 qù to go to a destination 必 bì necessary 疑 yí doubt, suspicion When the bodhisattva is born, fortune-tellers augur two possible destinies... 有此相者, 當趣二處, 必然無疑 Example 8.7 The text continues... 若 ruò if 家 jiā family; home, household 轉 zhuǎn to turn 輪 lún wheel 轉輪王 zhuǎnlún wáng Wheel-turning King, Skt. Cakravartin 若其樂家者, 當為轉輪王 43

51 Example 8.8 At times, rather than make a verb a noun, 者 marks the preceding word as the topic of the sentence. 足 zú feet 安 ān peace; stable, steady 平 píng level 滿 mǎn full Here the Buddha describes the marks of a Buddha. 說三十二相 一者, 足安平, 足下平滿 Example 8.9 After seeing his first old man, the Bodhisattva asks his charioteer what old age is. His charioteer explains. 生壽 shēngshòu lifespan 向 xiàng to approach, to near 答曰 夫老者, 生壽向盡 餘命無幾 故謂之老 Note: There are two ways of taking 者 here. Either it makes 老 a person ( one who is old ) or it marks it as a general topic ( old age ). 44

52 Example 8.10 給 gěi to supply 乳 rǔ milk 哺 bǔ to suckle 澡浴 zǎoyù to bathe 塗 tú to smear, to coat 香 xiāng incense 娛樂 yúlè entertainment Soon after the bodhisattva's birth, his father supplied him with all of the necessities, including... 爾時, 父王給四乳母 : 一者乳哺 二者澡浴 三者塗香 四者娛樂 45

53 Review 何有智者聞此因緣而不歡喜 起愛樂心? 8.2 太子顧問侍者 此為何人? 8.3 夫出家者, 欲調伏心意 8.4 御者答曰 此是沙門 8.5 今為信受樂聽者說 8.6 有此相者, 當趣二處, 必然無疑 8.7 若其樂家者, 當為轉輪王 8.8 說三十二相 一者, 足安平, 足下平滿 8.9 答曰 夫老者, 生壽向盡 餘命無幾 故謂之老 8.10 爾時, 父王給四乳母 : 一者乳哺 二者澡浴 三者塗香 四者娛樂 46

54 Lesson 9: Grammatical Flexibility Grammatical flexibility: nouns become verbs; verbs, nouns; verbs become adjectives, etc. Example 9.1 語 yǔ words; language, speech 語 yù to speak to 可 kě to approve, to accept Compare the word 語 in the following sentences. The first describes the Buddha's response to what the devas told him. In the second, he explains how it is that he knows of the lives of Buddhas of the distant past 爾時, 如來聞此天語, 默然可之 諸天來語, 乃知此事 47

55 Example 9.2 設 shè establish, make, set out; take 方便 fāngbiàn expedience, Skt. upāya; measures 使 shǐ to cause to 處 chǔ to place 深 shēn deep, profound 至 zhì to, until 處 chù place 恭敬 gōngjìng to respect, venerate 四事 sìshì the four things (i.e. the four basic necessities: clothing, food, bedding, medicine). 供養 gòngyǎng to provide Compare the word 處 in the following sentences. The first describes the actions of the Bodhisattva's father, intended to prevent him from becoming a wandering ascetic. The second describes the reception of the Buddha during his period of wandering 當設方便, 使處深宮 從國至國 所至之處, 無不恭敬, 四事供養 48

56 Example 9.3 善枝 Shànzhī (personal name) lit. Good Branch 安和 Ānhé (personal name) lit. Peaceful Harmony (P.) Sotthija (Skt.) Svāstika 若 ruò if 家 jiā home, household 轉輪聖王 zhuǎnlún shèngwáng Wheel-turning Sagely King, Skt. Cakravartin 天下 Tiānxià lit. All under heaven ; here: continent 王 wáng / wàng king / to be king of, to rule Compare 王 in the following passages. In the first, the text describes the names of the parents of one of the buddhas of the past: 母名善枝 王名安和 若在家者, 當為轉輪聖王, 王四天下 Example 9.4 樂 lè happiness, pleasure; to please; to be happy 苦 kǔ suffering 慼 qī sadness, sorrow 遇 yù to meet, to encounter 欣 xīn to enjoy, to delight Compare 樂 in the following sentences 道逢老人 是以不樂 逢苦不慼, 遇樂不欣 49

57 9.4.3 簡擇婇女以娛樂之 Example 9.5 Notice the word 俱 in the following two sentences you have seen above 一時, 佛在舍衛國祇樹花林窟, 與大比丘眾千二百五十人俱 兩不相汙 二俱淨故 50

58 Review 爾時, 如來聞此天語, 默然可之 諸天來語, 乃知此事 當設方便, 使處深宮 從國至國 所至之處, 無不恭敬, 四事供養 母名善枝 王名安和 若在家者, 當為轉輪聖王, 王四天下 道逢老人 是以不樂 逢苦不慼, 遇樂不欣 簡擇婇女以娛樂之 一時, 佛在舍衛國祇樹花林窟, 與大比丘眾千二百五十人俱 兩不相汙 二俱淨故 51

59 Lesson 10: Parallel and Rhythm Classical Chinese prose often employs parallel passages: two phrases or sentences in which the word order of the first is parallel to that of the second. This fondness for parallel often explains word choice and grammar: if a particular word is clearly a verb in the first phrase, the word in the same position of the second phrase is probably also to be taken as a verb. Similarly, the number of characters in classical Chinese texts was also often regulated. The text from which these lessons draw, the Dà běn jīng, for instance, has a particular fondness for four-character phrases. You will notice many instances in which the text could have been just as clear with three characters as four, or would have been clearer with five characters instead of four; in these instances, clarity or concision are sacrificed for rhythm. Remember that use of punctuation in Chinese is a modern phenomenon. In the absence of punctuation, regulating the number of characters in a passage provided clues to meaning and made for ease of reading. The examples below illustrate this tendency. Example 10.1 嚴駕 yánjià to adorn (a vehicle), to make ready, to harness 訖已 qìyǐ to finish, complete 還 huán to return 正 zhèng right; just so; truly 乘 chéng to ride 寶 bǎo precious 車 chē cart, chariot 詣 yì to go to 彼 bǐ that 園 yuǎn park 觀 guān to see, to observe There is no semantic distinction between 即 and 即便, both of which mean then. Divide the following passage into four character units and you will see why the translators used 即便 instead of just 即 in the second instance. 御者即便嚴駕訖已, 還 白 : 今正是時 太子即乘寶車詣彼園觀 52

60 Example 10.2 昔 xí in the past 占相 zhānxiàng to read someone s signs, to tell one s fortune 得無 déwú is or is not, could it be? 乎 hū (interrogative) 怒 nù anger 癡 chí foolishness, stupidity 承 chéng to bear 用 yòng to use We have seen that the word 者 normally acts to nominalize verbs. But in the following sentences, while perhaps it serves to emphasize the character before it, the primary function is to add a fourth character to the phrase. In this passage, when the Bodhisattva shows signs of dissatisfaction with his life as a prince, his father muses 昔日相師占相太子, 言當出家 今者不悅, 得無爾乎? Example 10.3 凡愚 fányú mundane, ordinary; ordinary people 能 néng to be able to 及 jí to reach, to achieve In the following sentences, the concluding word 也 is also primarily used to fill out the four-character phrase 病者, 眾痛迫切 存亡無期 故曰病也 Here the Buddha explains that not everyone will understand his teachings 智者所知 非是凡愚所能及也 53

61 Example 10.4 Compare the following two sentences which you have seen in previous lessons. Why does one conclude with the interrogative 耶? 父王問彼侍者 太子出遊, 歡樂不耶? 世尊告諸比丘 : 吾今欲以宿命智說過去佛事 汝欲聞不? Example 10.5 靜默 jìngmò quietly, silently 思惟 sīwéi to think, to reflect Despite the restrictions imposed by the four-character phrase, there is still considerable room for variations in phrasing. Consider the two following phrases 是時, 如來靜默自思 : 爾時, 父王默自思念 : 54

62 Review 御者即便嚴駕訖已, 還 白 : 今正是時 太子即乘寶車詣彼園觀 昔日相師占相太子, 言當出家 今者不悅, 得無爾乎? 病者, 眾痛迫切 存亡無期 故曰病也 智者所知 非是凡愚所能及也 父王問彼侍者 太子出遊, 歡樂不耶? 世尊告諸比丘 : 吾今欲以宿命智說過去佛事 汝欲聞不? 是時, 如來靜默自思 : 爾時, 父王默自思念 : 55

63 The Scripture of the Great Origin (Dàběn jīng 大本經 ) Introduction to the Dàbĕn jīng 大本經 This is the first scripture in the Cháng āhánjīng 長阿含經, literally the long āgama scripture, known in Sanskrit as the Dīrghāgama. It is indeed a long scripture, containing many independent scriptures and forming one of the four āgamas. The Cháng āhánjīng was translated into Chinese in the capital city of Cháng ān 長安 in 413 by Buddhayaśas 佛陀耶舍 and Zhú Fóniàn 竺佛念 from an Indian version of the text. Zhú Fóniàn is unusual among Chinese monks for being one of the few said to have mastered Sanskrit. Only fragments of a Sanskrit version of the Dīrghāgama are extant. A Pali version of the text exists as the Dīgha Nikāya. 6 The section we will read is the Dàběn jīng 大本經, literally the scripture of the great origin. (Pali, Mahāpadāna-suttanta; Skt. Mahāvadāna-sūtra). It describes the characteristics of a Buddha. In addition to the Chinese and Pali versions of the Scripture of the Great Origin, one fairly substantial part of the sutra survives in Sanskrit in one fragment which, together with several other manuscripts gives nearly the whole sutra. 7 The Chinese text before you is useful, particularly in comparison with the Pali and Sanskrit versions, for reconstructing what many consider to be among the earliest Buddhist texts. It is also useful for understanding the Dharmaguptaka School from which it came. 8 And while the Āgamas were not as influential in China as key Mahāyāna sutras, they were well known among Buddhist thinkers and were studied by eminent monks throughout Chinese history from the time of 6 On the various versions of this text and it significance, see André Bareau, Les sectes bouddhiques du Petit Véhicule (Paris: Publications de l École Française d Extrême-Orient 38, 1955), p.191; Étienne Lamotte, Histoire du bouddhisme indien des origines à l ère Śaka (Louvain: Bibliothèque du Muséon 43, 1958), pp ; and Jan Nattier, Once Upon a Future Time. Studies in a Buddhist Prophecy of Decline (Berkeley: Asian Humanities Press, 1991), pp For a recent English translation of the work, see The Long Discourses of the Buddha. A Translation of the Dīgha Nikāya by Maurice Walshe (Boston: Wisdom Publications, 1987). The Pali version of the text we will be reading is translated in section 14, pp What is missing are mostly verses. The sections dealing with the bodhisattva's birth are also paralleled in The Gilgit manuscript of the Saṅghabhedavastu: being the 17th and last section of the Vinaya of the Mūlasarvāstivādin, edited by Raniero Gnoli with the assistance of T. Venkatacharya (Rome: Istituto Italiano per il Medio ed Estremo Oriente, 1977). The fragments of the Mahāvadānasūtra were originally edited by Ernst Waldschmidt, Das Mahāvadānasūtra: ein kanonischer Text über die sieben letzten Buddhas; Sanskrit, verglichen mit dem Pāli nebst einer Analyse der in chinesischer Übersetzung überlieferten Parallelversionen auf Grund von Turfan-Handschriften (Berlin: Akademie-Verlag, ). The Sanskrit text was revised using additional fragments by Takamichi Fukita, The Mahāvadānasūtra: a new edition based on manuscripts discovered in Northern Turkestan, Sanskrit-Wörterbuch der buddhistischen Texte aus den Turfan-Funden 10 (Göttingen: Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht, 2003). There is no published English translation of the Sanskrit text, but there is a German one: Claudia Weber, Buddhistische Sutras: das Leben des Buddha in Quellentexten (Munich: Diederichs, 1999), pp On this once-thriving school, most of the works of which are extant only in Chinese translation, see Ann Heirman, Can We Trace the Early Dharmaguptakas? T oung Pao Vol.88, no.4-5 (2002), pp

64 their translation in the fifth century to the present day and are hence important for understanding the development of Chinese as well as Indian Buddhism. 9 Selected passages from the Dàběn jīng The passages below follow the order of the original. I have skipped some of the introductory material that lists the date of translation (we will cover Chinese dates later in the class), and have skipped most of the verse. Passages deleted are noted with ellipses. You should memorize all of the characters in the vocabulary lists with the exception of rarer words, in parentheses, which you may want to save for later. Here again, your goal should be to reach a point at which you can read and translate the passages without recourse to your own notes, the vocabulary lists or the renditions in the English translation volume. When I have used these materials in class, students are only allowed to bring the passages appended at the end of the volume (from page 132) stripped of glossaries and grammatical explanations. 9 For a useful Japanese translation of the Cháng āhánjīng with extensive annotation, see Okayama Hajime 丘山新 et al., Gendai goyaku Agon kyōten 現代語訳 阿含経典 : 長阿含経 (Tōkyō : Hirakawa Shuppansha, ). For a French translation of the Dàběnjīng, see Jin Siyan, Grand soutra sur l'essence des choses. Mahāpadāna-Sutra (Paris: Éditions You-feng, 2011). 57

65 Dàběn jīng 大本經 : 1 各 gè each 共 gòng together (we have previously seen 具 and 俱, each also meaning together ) 賢 xián wise, sagacious 飲 yín to drink 脩 xiū long 短 duǎn short ( 更 ) gèng to experience 苦 kǔ suffering 解 jǐe understanding 住 zhù to abide, to dwell (either literally where or how he lived, or metaphorically, as in to dwell in a particular state) 別 bié to distinguish 云何 yúnhé how, why 法性 fǎxìng dharma nature, Skt. dharmatā 來 lái to come 如是我聞 : 一時, 佛在舍衛國祇樹花林窟, 與大比丘眾千二百五十人俱 時, 諸比丘於乞食後, 集花林堂 各共議言 : 諸賢比丘, 唯無上尊為最奇特 神通遠達 威力弘大, 乃知過去無數諸佛入於涅槃 斷諸結使 消滅戱論 又知彼佛劫數多少 名號 姓字 所生種族 其所飲食 壽命脩短 所更苦樂 又知彼佛有如是戒 有如是法 有如是慧 有如是解 有如是住 云何? 諸賢, 如來為善別法性知如是事, 為諸天來語, 乃知此事 58

66 Note: Above, 諸賢比丘 could be taken to mean among the worthy monks, but we would expect the character zhōng 中 in the phrase to indicate among, and elsewhere, similar sentences begin by addressing the audience. Note below how often the Buddha begins a phrase by saying bhikṣus. 59

67 Dàběn jīng 大本經 : 2 詣 yì to go to, to arrive at 就 jiù then, thereupon; to go to, to approach 哉 zāi (exclamation, indicates emphasis) 平等 píngděng equal, with equanimity, non-discriminating 信 xìn faith 修 xiū to cultivate, practice 道 dào the Way, path, the Tao; to speak 應 yīng should, ought to 行 xíng conduct, action 凡 fán in total, overall 業 yè karma; duties, tasks 曰 yuē is called (we saw above meaning to speak ) 賢聖 xiánshèng wise and sagely (from Skt. bhadra and arya) 講法 jiǎngfǎ to lecture on the Law, to speak on the Dharma 正 zhèng right; just so; truly 亦 yì also, in addition 爾時, 世尊在閑靜處 天耳清淨 聞諸比丘作如是議 即從座起 詣花林堂, 就座而坐 爾時, 世尊知而故問, 謂諸比丘 : 汝等集此, 何所語議? 時, 諸比丘具以事答 爾時, 世尊告諸比丘 : 善哉 善哉 汝等以平等信, 出家修道 諸所應行, 凡有二業 : 一曰賢聖講法 二曰賢聖默然 汝等所論, 正應如是 如來神通, 威力弘大 盡知過去無數劫事, 以能善解法性故知, 亦以諸天來語故知 Dàběn jīng 大本經 : 3 60

68 識 shí to know 宿命智 sùmìngzhì knowledge of past lives 願 yuàn to be willing 奉 fèng respectfully 分別 fēnbié one by one; to analyze 解說 jiěshuō explain 九 jiǔ nine 毘婆尸 Pípóshī (Skt.) Vipaśyin 出現 chūxiàn to appear 于 yú (preposition) at, in, by 復次 fùcì moreover, furthermore, and so (we will later see fù by itself. In this text it is used as the compound fùcì only at the beginning of sentences.) 尸棄 Shīqì (Skt.) Śikhi 中 zhōng in, among, during 毘舍婆 Píshèpó (Skt.) Viśvabhu 賢劫 xiánjíe lit., the worthy aeon, (Skt.) bhadrakalpa. This is the kalpa in which we live. 拘樓孫 Jūlóusūn (Skt.) Krakucchanda 拘那含 Jū nàhán (Skt.) Kanakamuni 亦 yì also, furthermore 最正覺 zuìzhèngjué lit., most correct awakening, Skt. abhisaṃbuddha 又告諸比丘 : 汝等欲聞如來識宿命智 知於過去諸佛因緣不? 我 當說之 時, 諸比丘白言 世尊, 今正是時 願樂欲聞 善哉, 世尊 以時講說, 當奉行之 61

69 佛告諸比丘 : 諦聽, 諦聽 善思念之 吾當為汝分別解說 時, 諸比丘受教而聽 佛告諸比丘 : 過去九十一劫, 時世有佛名毘婆尸, 如來至真 出現于世 復次, 比丘, 過去三十一劫, 有佛名尸棄, 如來至真 出現於世 復次, 比丘, 即彼三十一劫中, 有佛名毘舍婆, 如來至真 出現於世 復次, 比丘, 此賢劫中有佛名拘樓孫 又名拘那含 又名迦葉 我今亦於賢劫中成最正覺 Dàběn jīng 大本經 : 4 七 qī seven 六 liù six 少 shǎo few 出 chū go beyond, exceed 多 duō many 減 jiǎn reduce; less than 汝等當知, 毘婆尸佛時, 人壽八萬歲 尸棄佛時, 人壽七萬歲 毘舍婆佛時, 人壽六萬歲 拘樓孫佛時, 人壽四萬歲 拘那含佛時, 人壽三萬歲 迦葉佛時, 人壽二萬歲 我今出世, 人壽百歲 少出多減 Dàběn jīng 大本經 : 5 剎利 chālì (Skt.) kṣatriya, the ruling class 種 zhǒng class 姓 xìng surname 拘利若 Jūlìruò (Skt.) Kauṇḍinya 62

70 婆羅門 pōluómén (Skt.) brahmin 瞿曇 Jùtán (Skt.) Gautama 毘婆尸佛出剎利種, 姓拘利若 尸棄佛 毘舍婆佛種 姓亦爾 拘樓 孫佛出婆羅門種, 姓迦葉 拘那含佛 迦葉佛種 姓亦爾 我今如來至 真, 出剎利種, 姓名曰瞿曇... Note: Chinese punctuation, which only became widespread in modern times, includes an enumeration comma ( ) for separating items in a series. Dàběn jīng 大本經 : 6 波波羅樹 bōbōluóshù Skt. pāṭalī, trumpet-flower tree 分陀利樹 fēntuōlìshù Skt. puṇḍarī, lotus tree 娑羅樹 suōluóshù Skt. śāla, shala tree 尸利沙樹 shīlìshāshù Skt. śirīṣa, acacia tree 烏暫婆羅門樹 wúzànpóluó menshù Skt. uḍumbara, cluster fig tree 尼拘律樹 níjūlǜ shù Skt. nyagrodha, banyan tree 鉢多樹 bōduōshù Skt. pippala, sacred fig tree 毘婆尸佛坐波波羅樹下成最正覺 尸棄佛坐分陀利樹下成最正覺 毘舍婆佛坐娑羅樹下成最正覺 拘樓孫佛坐尸利沙樹下成最正覺 拘那含佛坐烏暫婆羅門樹下成最正覺 迦葉佛坐尼拘律樹下成最正覺 我今如來至真, 坐鉢多樹下成最正覺

71 Dàběn jīng 大本經 : 7 會 huì gathering 初 chū first; at first 次 cì next 毘婆尸如來三會說法 初會, 弟子有十六萬八千人 二會, 弟子有十萬人 三會, 弟子有八萬人 尸棄如來亦三會說法 初會 弟子有十萬人 二會 弟子有八萬人 三會 弟子有七萬人 毘舍婆如來二會說法 初會 弟子有七萬人 次會 弟子有六萬人 拘樓孫如來一會說法 弟子四萬人 拘那含如來一會說法 弟子三萬人 迦葉如來一會說法 弟子二萬人 我今一會說法 弟子千二百五十人 From context, assembly here refers to groups of disciples, rather than to the number of times a Buddha preached. 64

72 Dàběn jīng 大本經 : 8 騫茶 Jiǎnchá (personal name), Skt. Skanda 提舍 Tíshě (personal name), Skt. Tiṣya 中 zhōng middle; among 第一 dìyī first 阿毘浮 Āpífú (personal name), Skt. Abhibhū 三婆婆 Sānpōpō (personal name), Skt. Saṃbhava 扶遊 Fúyóu (personal name), Skt. Śroṇa 鬱多摩 Yùduōmó (personal name), Skt. Uttama 薩尼 Sāní (personal name), Skt. Saṃjīva 毘樓 Pílóu (personal name), Skt. Vidhūra 舒槃那 Shūpánnà (personal name), Skt. Bhujiṣya 鬱多樓 Yùduōlóu (personal name), Skt. Uttara 婆羅婆 Póluópó (personal name), Skt. Bhāradvāja 舍利弗 Shèlìfú (personal name), Skt. Śāriputra 目揵連 Mùjiànlián (personal name), Skt. Maudgalyāyana 時, 毘婆尸佛有二弟子 : 一名騫茶 二名提舍 諸弟子中最為第一 尸棄佛有二弟子 : 一名阿毘浮 二名三婆婆 諸弟子中最為第一 毘舍婆佛有二弟子 : 一名扶遊 二名鬱多摩 諸弟子中最為第一 拘樓孫佛有二弟子 : 一名薩尼 二名毘樓 諸弟子中最為第一 拘那含佛有二弟子 : 一名舒槃那 二名鬱多樓 諸弟子中最為第一 迦葉佛有二弟子 : 一名提舍 二名婆羅婆 諸弟子中最為第一 今我二弟子 一名舍利弗 二名目揵連 諸弟子中最為第一

73 Dàběn jīng 大本經 : 9 執事 zhíshì administrative; administrator, attendant 無憂 Wúyōu (personal name) lit. Without Grief, Skt. Aśoka 忍行 Rěnxíng (personal name) lit. Tolerant Practice; P. Khemaṁkara; Skt. Kṣemaṃkara? 寂滅 Jìmiè (personal name) lit. Tranquil Extinction; P. Upasannaka; Skt. Upaśānta? 善覺 Shànjué (personal name) lit. Well-Awakened; P. Buddhija; Skt. Bhadrika? 安和 Ānhé (personal name) lit. Peaceful Harmony; P. Sotthija; Skt. Svāstika? 善友 Shànyǒu (personal name) lit Good Friend; P. Sabbamitta; Skt. Sarvamitra 阿難 Ā nán (personal name) Skt. Ānanda 毘婆尸佛有執事弟子, 名曰無憂 尸棄佛執事弟子, 名曰忍行 毘舍婆 佛有執事弟子, 名曰寂滅 拘樓孫佛有執事弟子, 名曰善覺 拘那含佛 有執事弟子, 名曰安和 迦葉佛有執事弟子, 名曰善友 我執事弟子名 曰阿難