NALANDA-SRIWIJAYA CENTRE WORKING PAPER SERIES NO. 18 (Apr 2015) THE BUDDHIST HEAVENS : SOURCE MANUAL FOR ICONOGRAPHIC RESEARCH ON THE BUDDHIST UNIVERS

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1 NALANDA-SRIWIJAYA CENTRE WORKING PAPER SERIES NO. 18 THE BUDDHIST HEAVENS : SOURCE MANUAL FOR ICONOGRAPHIC RESEARCH ON THE BUDDHIST UNIVERSE, PART II Various illustrations of the Buddhist heavens (see inside pages for photo sources) Ataru Sotomura

2 NALANDA-SRIWIJAYA CENTRE WORKING PAPER SERIES NO. 18 (Apr 2015) THE BUDDHIST HEAVENS : SOURCE MANUAL FOR ICONOGRAPHIC RESEARCH ON THE BUDDHIST UNIVERSE, PART II Ataru Sotomura Ataru Sotomura studied Landscape Architecture and earned his PhD from Kyôto University (Japan) in Since 1990, he has been teaching at the Institute of East and South Asian Cultural Studies, Sinology, University of Würzburg (Germany). He was a visiting professor at the Institute for Research in Humanities at Kyôto University in 2007 and a visiting research scholar at the International Research Center for Japanese Studies, Kyôto, in He has been working in the field of art and culture of ancient Asia, particularly cities and gardens, music and musical instruments, as well as Buddhist art and culture. ataru.sotomura@mail.uni-wuerzburg.de The NSC Working Paper Series is published electronically by the Nalanda-Sriwijaya Centre of the Institute of Southeast Asian Studies in Singapore. Copyright is held by the author or authors of each Working Paper. NSC Working Papers cannot be republished, reprinted, or reproduced in any format without the permission of the paper s author or authors. Citations of this electronic publication should be made in the following manner: Ataru Sotomura, The Buddhist Heavens : Source Manual for Iconographic Research on the Buddhist Universe, Part II, Nalanda-Sriwijaya Centre Working Paper No 18 (Apr 2015), papers/nscwps018.pdf NSC WPS Editors: Andrea Acri Derek Heng Joyce Zaide Nalanda-Sriwijaya Centre Editorial Committee: Andrea Acri Ten Leu-Jiun Derek Heng Joyce Zaide The Nalanda-Sriwijaya Centre Working Paper Series has been established to provide an avenue for swift publication and wide dissemination of research conducted or presented within the Centre, and of studies engaging fields of enquiry of relevance to the Centre. The Nalanda-Sriwijaya Centre Institute of Southeast Asian Studies 30 Heng Mui Keng Terrace Pasir Panjang, Singapore TELEPHONE : (+65) FAX : (+65) WEB : FACEBOOK : facebook.com/nalandasriwijayacentre

3 The Buddhist Heavens 天 Source Manual for Iconographic Research on the Buddhist Universe, Part II 1 Ataru Sotomura I. Introduction This manual attempts to extract fragmented pieces of information on the Buddhist heavens 天 above Mt. Sumeru from the most representative Chinese translations of the original Indian scriptures. It serves as Part II following Mt. Sumeru 須彌山 : Source Manual for Iconographic Research on the Buddhist Universe, which appeared as NSC Working Paper No. 6. It organizes information on Buddhist heavens in order to provide a hypothetical basis for iconographic research on the Buddhist universe as well as an easy access to relevant Chinese texts. It attempts to show the different ideas held by Buddhists of various schools of the Vehicle of the Hearers and the Mahāyāna regarding the number of independent heavens. These numbers can be regarded as the most distinctive iconographic feature depicting the universe, as understood by the various schools (see Part III. Figures). If we study the Chinese translations, we can see more precisely the historical development of the ideas regarding the fundamental parts of the Buddhist universe. This manual would like to draw particular attention to the following points: Debate on the number of the independent heavens in the Rūpadhātu (Form Realm 色界 ). Many ancient Indian Buddhists seemed to believe that there are either 16, 17 or 18 independent heavens in the Rūpadhātu, although the latter figure is a subject of debate among them (see Chapter IV. General Tables). Nevertheless, they often mention more than 18 heavens (see Chapter V. Chinese Translations of the Sanskrit Names of the Heavens). 1 Part of the research for this manual was supported by the International Research Center for Japanese Studies 国際日本文化研究センター, Kyoto, Japan. The author of this manual would like to express his cordial gratitude for direct or indirect help from the following researchers and professionals: Yōzaburō Shirahata 白幡洋三郎, Munehiko Sakata 阪田宗彦, Tōru Funayama 船山徹, Taisei Shida 志田泰盛, Jun Fujii 藤井淳, Yasuo Inamoto 稲本泰生, Miho Fukuda 福田美穂, Mari Nakayasu 中安真理 as well as those who made the very useful and reliable databases and references used in this paper. Special thanks to the NSC WPS Editors, especially Andrea Acri and Joyce Zaide. Without their professional support, this manual would not have been completed. 1

4 Debate on the existence or non-existence of the heavens of Brahmapāriṣadya 梵眷屬天 ( 梵眾天 ) and Maheśvara 摩醯首羅天 ( 大自在天 ) as independent heavens in the Rūpadhātu. Many modern scholars recognize the heaven of Brahmapāriṣadya as an independent heaven. However, many ancient Indian Buddhists believed that the heaven of Brahmapāriṣadya does not exist independently or even at all. It appears that the idea of the existence of Maheśvara as an independent heaven was introduced in the process of the development of ideas among the Buddhists of the Mahāyāna (see Chapter IV. General Tables). Considering the above points, in case no other reasonable explanations can be found in any of the scriptures, this manual organizes and analyzes the information tentatively on the basis of the following hypothesis (see Chapter VI. Texts and Analyses): Hypothesis: There are 18 independent heavens in the Rūpadhātu 色界. The order of the names of the heavens in the enumeration shows the locations of the heavens from below upwards. The heaven of Brahmapāriṣadya does not exist independently in the first dhyāna (meditation stage 靜慮 ). If four names are shown as the names of the heavens of each of the second, the third and the lower part of the fourth dhyānas, the first names are not the names of the independent heavens but the generic names of the other three independent heavens. Further considerations and corrections of this manual are of course expected to be made in future research. II. References This manual mainly uses the following literature and databases as reliable sources of information. The author has made some minor corrections on punctuations to some of the texts at his discretion. 1. Sanskrit and Chinese Terms 1-1. A Dictionary of Chinese Buddhist Terms by William Edward Soothill and Lewis Hodous, Kirfel, Willibald. Die Kosmographie der Inder. Darmstadt: Wissenschaftliche Buchgesellschaft, 1920, Kloetzli, Randy. Buddhist Cosmology: From Single World System to Pure Land: Science and Theology in the Images of Motion and Light. Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass, Nattier, Jan. Heaven Names in the Translations of Zhi Qian, in: Annual Report of the International Research Institute for Advanced Buddhology at Soka University, vol. 12, 2009, pp , ARIRIAB-12-Contents.pdf 1-5. 平川彰 佛教漢梵大辭典 Buddhist Chinese-Sanskrit dictionary 東京 靈友会 1997 年 1-6. 平川彰 吉津宜英 阿毘達磨俱舍論索引 Index to the Abhidharmakośabhāṣya 1 3 東京 大蔵出版 年 2

5 1-7. 望月信亨 塚本善隆ほか ( 編 ) 望月佛教大辭典 増訂 4 版 京都 世界聖典刊行協会, 1967 年 - 2. Sanskrit Scripture Databases 2-1. Abhidharmakośabhāṣya, Sanskrit text and Chinese translations by Paramārtha and Xuanzang, Research Institute of Sanskrit Manuscripts & Buddhist Literature, Peking University, Digital Sanskrit Buddhist Canon, University of the West, dsbcproject.org/ 2-3. GRETIL Göttingen Register of Electronic Texts in Indian Languages, Georg- August-Universität Göttingen, 3. Chinese Scripture Databases 3-1. CBETA CD Version CBETA, SAT Daizōkyō Text Database, Tripitaka Koreana, 4. Sanskrit and Chinese Scripture Titles 4-1. Digital Dictionary of Buddhism, Sanskrit Text Titles Index, buddhism-dict.net/ddb/indexes/text-sa.html 4-2. 望月信亨 塚本善隆ほか ( 編 ) 望月佛教大辭典 増訂 4 版 京都 世界聖典刊行協会, 1967 年 -, 梵本 5. General Information on the Chinese Scriptures in the Taishō Shinshū Daizōkyō 大正新脩大藏經 Taishō Tripiṭaka 6. Others 5-1. 小野玄妙 ( 編 ) 佛書解説大辭典 大東出版社, 年 5-2. 鎌田茂雄ほか ( 編 ) 大蔵経全解説大事典 東京 雄山閣出版 1998 年 6-1. Ataru Sotomura, Mt. Sumeru 須彌山 : Source Manual for Iconographic Research on the Buddhist Universe, Nalanda Sriwijaya Centre Working Paper No 6 (Sep 2011), 大正大学綜合佛教研究所凡聖界地章翻刻研究会 ( 編著 ) 良賁撰 凡聖界地章 大正大学綜合佛教研究所研究叢書第 14 巻 東京 ノンブル 2006 年 3

6 III. Figures Fig. 1. Miyoshi, Tadayoshi. Japanische unde europäische Kartographie vom 16. bis zum 19. Jahrhundert, in Doris Croissant and Lothar Ledderose (Hrsg.), Japan und Europa, : eine Ausstellung der 43. Berliner Festwochen im Martin-Gropius-Bau Berlin. Berliner Festspiele: Argon, 1993, S ; S. 220; S. 38 (1/2 Abb. 12). Der Berg Shumi-san, Entsū ( ), um Fig. 2. 福岡市博物館 Fukuoka City Museum 420: 南蔵院寄贈チベット仏教コレクション 2 福岡 福岡市博物館 2013 年 図 1 Fig. 3. Kirfel, Willibald. Die Kosmographie der Inder. Darmstadt: Wissenschaftliche Buchgesellschaft, 1920/1967, Taf. 2. 4

7 Fig. 1. A Japanese illustration of 20 independent heavens (4 heavens of the Kāmadhātu 欲界 + 16 heavens of the Rūpadhātu 色界 ) above Mt. Sumeru (dated ca. 1810, Kobe City Museum, Japan 神戸市立博物館 ). [Cf. T27, No.1545 Apidamo dapiposha lun 阿毘達磨大毘婆沙論 ; T29, No.1562 Apidamo shunzhengli lun 阿毘達磨順正理論 ; and T77, 2425 Himitsu mandara jūjūshin ron 秘密曼荼羅十住心論 based on Fansheng jiedi zhang 凡聖界地章 ] 5

8 Fig. 2. A Tibetan illustration of 21 independent heavens (4 heavens of the Kāmadhātu 欲界 + 17 heavens of the Rūpadhātu 色界 ) above Mt. Sumeru (Fukuoka City Museum, Japan 福岡市博物館 ). [Cf. T29, No.1558 Apidamo jushe lun 阿毘達磨俱舍論 ; and T29, No.1559 Apidamo jushe shilun 阿毘達磨俱舍釋論 ] 6

9 Fig. 3. An example of 18 independent heavens (probably of the Rūpadhātu 色界 ) above Mt. Sumeru (Alphabetum Thibetanum, Rom 1762: Kirfel, Willibald 1920). [Cf. T30, No.1579 Yuqie shidi lun 瑜伽師地論 ] 7

10 IV. General Tables (shown in the following order): Table 1. Sanskrit Names of the Heavens Table 2. Meanings of the Names of the Heavens Table 3-1. Comparison of the Number of the Independent Heavens above Mt. Sumeru according to the Various Schools of the Vehicle of the Hearers, I 有部, 婆沙論, Sarvāstivāda, Kaśmīr: T27, No.1545 Apidamo dapiposha lun 阿毘達磨大毘婆沙論 (see VI. Texts and Analyses). 有部, ( 婆沙論 ), Sarvāstivāda, Gandhāra: T27, No.1545 Apidamo dapiposha lun 阿毘達磨大毘婆沙論. 法藏部, 世記經, Dharmaguptaka: T01, No.1 Shiji jing 世記經. 起世經, One of the Hearers: T01, No.24 Qishi jing 起世經. Table 3-2. Comparison of the Number of the Independent Heavens above Mt. Sumeru, according to the Various Schools of the Vehicle of the Hearers, II 正量部, 立世論, Saṃmitīya: T32, No.1644 Foshuo lishi apitan lun 佛説立世阿毘曇論. 有部經部, 俱舍論, Kośa., Gandhāra: T29, No.1558 Apidamo jushe lun 阿毘達磨俱舍論 ; and T29, No.1559 Apidamo jushe shilun 阿毘達磨俱舍釋論. 經量部, ( 順正理論 ), Sautrāntika: T29, No.1562 Apidamo shunzhengli lun 阿毘達磨順正理論. 有部, 順正理論, Sarvāstivāda, Kaśmīr: T29, No.1562 Apidamo shunzhengli lun 阿毘達磨順正理論. Table 3-3. Number of the Independent Heavens above Mt. Sumeru, the Mahāyāna 初期般若, Earlier Prajñā.: T05 07, No.220 Da bore boluomiduo jing 大般若波羅蜜多經 ( 大般若經 ); T08, No.223 Mohe bore boluomi jing 摩訶般若波羅蜜經 ( 大品般若經 ); and T08, No.227 Xiaopin bore boluomi jing 小品般若波羅蜜經 ( 小品般若經 ). 後期般若, 大智度論, Later Prajñā.: T25, No.1509 Dazhidu lun 大智度論. 大乗, 華嚴經, Avataṃsaka: T09, No.278 Dafangguangfo huayan jing 大方廣佛華嚴經 ( 六十華嚴 ); and T10, No.279 Dafangguangfo huayan jing 大方廣佛華嚴經 ( 八十華嚴 ). 大乗, 瑜伽論, Yogācāra: T30, No.1579 Yuqie shidi lun 瑜伽師地論. Table 3-4. Number of the Independent Heavens above Mt. Sumeru, according to Chinese and Japanese Interpretations 寶唱, 經律異相, China 516 CE: T53, No Jinglü yixiang 經律異相. 空海, 十住心論, Japan 830 CE: T77, No Himitsu mandara jūjūshin ron 秘密曼荼羅十住心論. 法雲, 翻譯名義集, China 1143 CE: T54, No Fanyi mingyi ji 翻譯名義集. 8

11 Table 1. Sanskrit Names of the Heavens Dhātu Realm Dhyāna Meditation Stage Name of Heaven 無色界 Naivasaṃjñānāsaṃjñāyatana Arūpadhātu Akiñcanyāyatana (Formless Realm) Vijñānānantyāyatana Ākāśānantyāyatana 色界 Maheśvara Rūpadhātu 第四靜慮 ( 四禪 ) Akaniṣṭha (Form Realm) 4th dhyāna Sudarśana Sudṛśa Atapa Abṛha Śuddhāvāsa 欲界 Kāmadhātu (Desire Realm) 第三靜慮 ( 三禪 ) 3rd dhyāna 第二靜慮 ( 二禪 ) 2nd dhyāna 初靜慮 ( 初禪 ) 1st dhyāna Notes: See VII. Appendix: Sanskrit Texts Asaṃjñisattva Bṛhatphala Puṇyaprasava Anabhraka (?) Śubhakṛtsna Apramāṇaśubha Parīttaśubha Śubhā Ābhāsvara Apramāṇābha Parīttābha Ābhā Mahābrahma Brahmapāriṣadya Brahmapurohita Brahmakāyika Brahma Māra Paranirmitavaśavartin Nirmāṇarati Tuṣita Yāma Trayastriṃśa Caturmahārājakāyika 9

12 Table 2. Meanings of the Names of the Heavens Dhātu Realm Dhyāna Meditation Stage Name of Heaven Meaning 無色界 Naivasaṃjñānāsaṃjñāyatana beyond thought or non-thought Arūpadhātu Akiñcanyāyatana nothingness (Formless Vijñānānantyāyatana infinite perception Ākāśānantyāyatana infinite space Realm) 色界 Rūpadhātu (Form Realm) 欲界 Kāmadhātu (Desire Realm) Maheśvara: heaven of the highest ranking deva of a One-Billion-World-Universe 4th Akaniṣṭha the end of form, the most beautiful form Sudarśana more beautiful form Sudṛśa beautiful form Atapa no heat Abṛha no effort Śuddhāvāsa: pure-dwelling, generic name of the above five heavens of the 4th dhyāna Asaṃjñisattva: no Buddhist thought Bṛhatphala large fruitage Puṇyaprasava felicitous birth Anabhraka no cloud (?): generic name of the above three heavens of the 4th dhyāna 3rd Śubhakṛtsna universal purity Apramāṇaśubha infinite purity Parīttaśubha minor purity Śubhā: purity, generic name of the heavens of the 3rd dhyāna 2nd Ābhāsvara utmost light purity Apramāṇābha infinite light Parīttābha minor light Ābhā: light, generic name of the heavens of the 2nd dhyāna 1st Mahābrahma Great Brahma Brahmapāriṣadya: retinue of Great Brahma Brahmapurohita Brahma-priest or minister Brahmakāyika ordinary Brahma Brahma: generic name of the heavens of the 1st dhyāna Māra: destroyer Paranirmitavaśavartin Nirmāṇarati Tuṣita Yāma Trayastriṃśa Caturmahārājakāyika pleasure in others creation pleasure in creation wonderful joys wonderful times the 33 devas at the top of Mt. Sumeru the four deva-kings and their retinues 10

13 Table 3-1. Comparison of the Number of the Independent Heavens above Mt. Sumeru, according to the Various Schools of the Vehicle of the Hearers, I Realm Stage Name of Heaven Schools of the Vehicle of the Hearers 無色界 Naivasaṃjñānāsaṃjñāyatana Arūpadhātu Akiñcanyāyatana Vijñānānantyāyatana Ākāśānantyāyatana 有部有部法藏部婆沙論 ( 婆沙論 ) 世記經起世經 Sarvāstivāda Sarvāstivāda Dharmaguptaka unspecified Kaśmīr Gandhāra 色界 Rūpadhātu Maheśvara 4th Akaniṣṭha Sudarśana Sudṛśa Atapa Abṛha Śuddhāvāsa Asaṃjñisattva Bṛhatphala Puṇyaprasava Anabhraka (?) 3rd Śubhakṛtsna Apramāṇaśubha Parīttaśubha Śubhā 2nd Ābhāsvara Apramāṇābha Parīttābha Ābhā 1st Mahābrahma Brahmapāriṣadya Brahmapurohita Brahmakāyika Brahma 欲界 Māra (5) (5) Kāmadhātu Parinirmitavaśavartin Nirmāṇarati Tuṣita Yāma Trayastriṃśa Caturmahārājakāyika Notes: (This applies to Table 3-1 onwards:) The ordinal numbers indicate the order of the locations of the dhyāna meditation stages from below upwards of the Rūpadhātu, while the cardinal numbers show the order of the locations of the independent heavens from below upwards of each realm. Independence is directly denied. Independence is indirectly denied. + It has no location. 11

14 Table 3-2. Comparison of the Number of the Independent Heavens above Mt. Sumeru, according to the Various Schools of the Vehicle of the Hearers, II Realm Stage Name of Heaven Schools of the Vehicle of the Hearers 正量部有部經部經量部有部 立世論 俱舍論 ( 順正理論 ) 順正理論 Saṃmitīya Kośa. Gandhāra Sautrāntika Sarvāstivāda Kaśmīr 無色界 Naivasaṃjñānāsaṃjñāyatana Arūpadhātu Akiñcanyāyatana Vijñānānantyāyatana Ākāśānantyāyatana 色界 Rūpadhātu Maheśvara 4th Akaniṣṭha Sudarśana (15) Sudṛśa (14) Atapa (17) Abṛha (16) Śuddhāvāsa Asaṃjñisattva Bṛhatphala Puṇyaprasava Anabhraka (?) 3rd Śubhakṛtsna Apramāṇaśubha Parīttaśubha Śubhā 2nd Ābhāsvara Apramāṇābha Parīttābha Ābhā 1st Mahābrahma Brahmapāriṣadya (2) Brahmapurohita Brahmakāyika Brahma 欲界 Māra Kāmadhātu Paranirmitavaśavartin Nirmāṇarati Tuṣita Yāma Trayastriṃśa Caturmahārājakāyika Notes: Independence is directly denied. Independence is indirectly denied. + It has no location. 12

15 Table 3-3. Comparison of the Number of the Independent Heavens above Mt. Sumeru according to the Mahāyāna Realm Stage Name of Heaven The Mahāyāna 初期般若 後期般若 大乗 大乗 大智度論 華嚴經 瑜伽論 Earlier Later Prajñā. Prajñā. Avataṃsaka Yogācāra 無色界 Naivasaṃjñānāsaṃjñāyatana (4) Arūpadhātu Akiñcanyāyatana (3) Vijñānānantyāyatana (2) Ākāśānantyāyatana (1) 色界 Maheśvara Rūpadhātu Sudṛśa th Akaniṣṭha Sudarśana Atapa Abṛha Śuddhāvāsa Asaṃjñisattva 13 Bṛhatphala Puṇyaprasava Anabhraka (?) 3rd Śubhakṛtsna Apramāṇaśubha Parīttaśubha Śubhā 2nd Ābhāsvara Apramāṇābha Parīttābha Ābhā 1st Mahābrahma Brahmapāriṣadya Brahmapurohita Brahmakāyika Brahma 欲界 Māra Kāmadhātu Paranirmitavaśavartin Nirmāṇarati Tuṣita Yāma Trayastriṃśa Caturmahārājakāyika Notes: Independence is directly denied. Independence is indirectly denied. 13

16 Table 3-4. Comparison of the Number of the Independent Heavens above Mt. Sumeru according to Chinese and Japanese Interpretations Realm Stage Name of Heaven Chinese and Japanese Scriptures 寶唱 空海 法雲 經律異相 十住心論 翻譯名義集 China 516 CE Japan 830 CE China 1143 CE* 無色界 Naivasaṃjñānāsaṃjñāyatana Arūpadhātu Akiñcanyāyatana Vijñānānantyāyatana Ākāśānantyāyatana 色界 Maheśvara 19 Rūpadhātu 4th Akaniṣṭha Sudarśana Sudṛśa Atapa Abṛha Śuddhāvāsa Asaṃjñisattva Bṛhatphala Puṇyaprasava Anabhraka (?) 10 3rd Śubhakṛtsna Apramāṇaśubha Parīttaśubha Śubhā 7 2nd Ābhāsvara Apramāṇābha Parīttābha Ābhā 4 1st Mahābrahma Brahmapāriṣadya 2 Brahmapurohita Brahmakāyika Brahma 欲界 Māra (5) (5) (5) (5) Kāmadhātu Paranirmitavaśavartin Nirmāṇarati Tuṣita Yāma Trayastriṃśa Caturmahārājakāyika Notes: Independence is directly denied. Independence is indirectly denied. * 翻譯名義集 shows three kinds of interpretations. 14

17 V. Chinese Translations of the Sanskrit Names of the Heavens (shown in the following order): T01, No.1 Shiji jing 世記經, the Dharmaguptaka school 法藏部. T01, No.24 Qishi jing 起世經, one of the schools of the Vehicle of the Hearers. T05-07, No.220 Da bore boluomiduo jing 大般若波羅蜜多經 ( 大般若經 ), Earlier Prajñā., the Mahāyāna. T08, No.223 Mohe bore boluomi jing 摩訶般若波羅蜜經 ( 大品般若經 ), Earlier Prajñā., the Mahāyāna. T08, No.227 Xiaopin bore boluomi jing 小品般若波羅蜜經 ( 小品般若經 ), Earlier Prajñā., the Mahāyāna. T09, No.278 Dafangguangfo huayan jing 大方廣佛華嚴經 ( 六十華嚴 ), the Mahāyāna. T10, No.279 Dafangguangfo huayan jing 大方廣佛華嚴經 ( 八十華嚴 ), the Mahāyāna. T25, No.1509 Dazhidu lun 大智度論, Later Prajñā., the Mahāyāna. T27, No.1545 Apidamo dapiposha lun 阿毘達磨大毘婆沙論, the Sarvāstivāda school 有部 in Kaśmīr. T29, No.1558 Apidamo jushe lun 阿毘達磨俱舍論, Kośa., the Sarvāstivāda school 有部 in Gandhāra and/or the Sautrāntika school 經量部. T29, No.1559 Apidamo jushe shilun 阿毘達磨俱舍釋論, Kośa., the Sarvāstivāda school 有部 in Gandhāra and/or the Sautrāntika school 經量部. T29, No.1562 Apidamo shunzhengli lun 阿毘達磨順正理論, the Sarvāstivāda school 有部 in Kaśmīr. T30, No.1579 Yuqie shidi lun 瑜伽師地論, the Mahāyāna Yogācāra school 瑜伽行派. T32, No.1644 Foshuo lishi apitan lun 佛説立世阿毘曇論, the Saṃmitīya school 正量部. T53, No.2121 Jinglü yixiang 經律異相, Chinese understanding in 516 CE. T54, No Fanyi mingyi ji 翻譯名義集, Chinese understanding in 1143 CE T77, No Himitsu mandara jūjūshin ron 秘密曼荼羅十住心論, Japanese understanding in ca. 830 CE. 15

18 Table 4. T01, No.1 Shiji jing 世記經, The Dharmaguptaka School 法藏部 Realm Stage Name of Heaven Chinese Translation Location 無色界 Naivasaṃjñānāsaṃjñāyatana 有想無想智天 有想無想處智天 4 Arūpadhātu Akiñcanyāyatana 無所有智天 無所有處智天 3 Vijñānānantyāyatana 識智天 識處智天 2 Ākāśānantyāyatana 空智天 空處智天 1 色界 Maheśvara Rūpadhātu 4th Akaniṣṭha 阿迦尼吒天 色究竟天 18 Sudarśana 大善見天 17 Sudṛśa 善見天 16 Atapa 無熱天 15 Abṛha 無造天 14 Śuddhāvāsa Asaṃjñisattva 無想天 13 Bṛhatphala 嚴飾果實天 果實天 12 Puṇyaprasava 無量嚴飾天 11 Anabhraka 少嚴飾天 10 (?) 嚴飾天 3rd Śubhakṛtsna 遍淨天 9 Apramāṇaśubha 無量淨天 8 Parīttaśubha 少淨天 7 Śubhā 淨天 2nd Ābhāsvara 光音天 6 Apramāṇābha 無量光天 5 Parīttābha 少光天 4 Ābhā 光天 1st Mahābrahma 大梵天 3 Brahmapāriṣadya 梵眾天 Brahmapurohita 梵輔天 2 Brahmakāyika 梵身天 梵加夷天 1 Brahma 梵天 欲界 Māra 魔天 (5) Kāmadhātu Paranirmitavaśavartin 他化自在天 4 Nirmāṇarati 化自在天 3 Tuṣita 兜率天 2 Yāma 焰摩天 1 Trayastriṃśa Caturmaharājakāyika 忉利天 三十三天四天王 四天大王 Notes: (This applies to Table 4 onwards:) All the Sanskrit names are shown in each table for comparison, although they are not always mentioned in each scripture. The details are explained in Chapter VI. 16

19 Table 5. T01, No.24 Qishi jing 起世經, One of the Schools of the Vehicle of the Hearers Realm Stage Name of Heaven Chinese Translation Location 無色界 Naivasaṃjñānāsaṃjñāyatana 非想非非想天 非想非非想處 4 Akiñcanyāyatana 無所有天 無所有處 3 Vijñānānantyāyatana 識無邊天 無邊識處 2 Ākāśānantyāyatana 空無邊天 無邊空處 1 色界 Maheśvara 4th Akaniṣṭha 阿迦膩吒天 阿迦尼吒諸天 18 Sudarśana 善現天 17 Sudṛśa 善見天 16 Atapa 無惱天 不惱天 15 Abṛha 無煩天 不麤天 14 Śuddhāvāsa Asaṃjñisattva 無想天 13 Bṛhatphala 廣果天 12 Puṇyaprasava 無量廣天 11 Anabhraka 少廣天 10 (?) 廣天 3rd Śubhakṛtsna 遍淨天 9 Apramāṇaśubha 無量淨天 8 Parīttaśubha 少淨天 7 Śubhā 淨天 2nd Ābhāsvara 光音天 6 Apramāṇābha 無量光天 5 Parīttābha 少光天 4 Ābhā 光天 1st Mahābrahma 大梵天 3 Brahmapāriṣadya 梵眾天 Brahmapurohita 梵輔天 2 Brahmakāyika 梵身天 梵身諸天 1 Brahma 梵世天 欲界 Māra 魔身天 摩羅波旬諸天 摩羅天 (5) Paranirmitavaśavartin 他化自在天 他化自在諸天 他化天 4 Nirmāṇarati 化樂天 化樂諸天 3 Tuṣita 兜率陀天 兜率天 2 Yāma 夜摩天 夜摩諸天 1 Trayastriṃśa Caturmaharājakāyika 三十三天四天王天 四大天王 17

20 Table 6. T05-07, No.220 Da bore boluomiduo jing 大般若波羅蜜多經 ( 大般若經 ), Earlier Prajñā., the Mahāyāna Realm Stage Names of Heaven Chinese Translation Location 無色界 Naivasaṃjñānāsaṃjñāyatana 非想非非想處天 4 Akiñcanyāyatana 無所有處天 3 Vijñānānantyāyatana 識無邊處天 2 Ākāśānantyāyatana 空無邊處天 1 色界 欲界 Maheśvara 4th Akaniṣṭha 色究竟天 18 Sudarśana 善見天 17 Sudṛśa 善現天 16 Atapa 無熱天 15 Abṛha 無煩天 無繁天 14 Śuddhāvāsa 淨居天 Asaṃjñisattva 無想天 無想有情天 13 Bṛhatphala 廣果天 12 Puṇyaprasava 無量廣天 11 Anabhraka 少廣天 10 (?) 廣天 3rd Śubhakṛtsna 遍淨天 9 Apramāṇaśubha 無量淨天 8 Parīttaśubha 少淨天 7 Śubhā 淨天 2nd Ābhāsvara 極光淨天 6 Apramāṇābha 無量光天 5 Parīttābha 少光天 4 Ābhā 光天 1st Mahābrahma 大梵天 3 Brahmapāriṣadya 梵會天 Brahmapurohita 梵輔天 2 Brahmakāyika 梵眾天 1 Brahma Māra Paranirmitavaśavartin 他化自在天 4 Nirmāṇarati 樂變化天 3 Tuṣita 睹史多天 2 Yāma 夜摩天 1 Trayastriṃśa Caturmaharājakāyika 三十三天四大王眾天 四大天王 18

21 Table 7. T08, No.223 Mohe bore boluomi jing 摩訶般若波羅蜜經 ( 大品般若經 ), Earlier Prajñā., the Mahāyāna Realm Stage Names of Heaven Chinese Translation Location Vol. 1 Vol. 9 Vol. 12 無色界 Naivasaṃjñānāsaṃjñāyatana 非有想非無想處天 4 Akiñcanyāyatana 無所有處天 3 Vijñānānantyāyatana 識無邊處天 2 Ākāśānantyāyatana 虛空無邊處天 1 色界 欲界 Maheśvara 4th Akaniṣṭha 色究竟天阿迦尼吒天 18 Sudarśana 喜見天妙見天 17 Sudṛśa 妙見天快見天 16 Atapa 無熱天不熱天 15 Abṛha 無誑天阿浮訶那天 14 Śuddhāvāsa 首陀會天淨居天淨居天 Asaṃjñisattva 無想天 13 Bṛhatphala 廣果天廣果天 12 Puṇyaprasava 福德天得福天 11 Anabhraka 無蔭行天阿那婆迦天 10 (?) 3rd Śubhakṛtsna 遍淨天遍淨天 9 Apramāṇaśubha 無量淨天無量淨天 8 Parīttaśubha 少淨天少淨天 7 Śubhā 淨天淨天 2nd Ābhāsvara 光音天光音天 6 Apramāṇābha 無量光天無量光天 5 Parīttābha 少光天少光天 4 Ābhā 光天光天 1st Mahābrahma 大梵天大梵天 3 Brahmapāriṣadya 梵會天梵眾天 Brahmapurohita 梵輔天梵輔天 2 Brahmakāyika 梵眾天梵身天 1 Brahma 梵眾天 Māra Paranirmitavaśavartin 他化自在天他化自在天他化自在天 4 Nirmāṇarati 化樂天化樂天化樂天 3 Tuṣita 兜率陀天兜率陀天兜率陀天 2 Yāma 夜摩天夜摩天夜摩天 1 Trayastriṃśa 三十三天三十三天三十三天 Caturmahārājakāyika 四天王天四天王天四天王天 19

22 Table 8. T08, No.227 Xiaopin bore boluomi jing 小品般若波羅蜜經 ( 小品般若經 ), Earlier Prajñā., the Mahāyāna Realm Stage Name of Heaven Chinese Translation Location Vol. 2 Vol. 3 Vol. 9 無色界 色界 欲界 Naivasaṃjñānāsaṃjñāyatana Akiñcanyāyatana Vijñānānantyāyatana Ākāśānantyāyatana Maheśvara 4th Akaniṣṭha 無小天無小天無小天 18 Sudarśana 善見天善見天善見天 17 Sudṛśa 妙見天妙見天妙見天 16 Atapa 無熱天無熱天無熱天 15 Abṛha 無廣天無廣天無廣天 14 Śuddhāvāsa 淨居諸天 Asaṃjñisattva *13 Bṛhatphala 廣果天廣果天廣果天 12 Puṇyaprasava 福生天福生天福生天 11 Anabhraka 無陰行天無雲行天無陰天 10 (?) 3rd Śubhakṛtsna 遍淨天遍淨天遍淨天 9 Apramāṇaśubha 無量淨天無量淨天無量淨天 8 Parīttaśubha 少淨天少淨天少淨天 7 Śubhā 淨天淨天淨天 2nd Ābhāsvara 光音天光音天光音天 6 Apramāṇābha 無量光天無量光天無量光天 5 Parīttābha 少光天少光天少光天 4 Ābhā 光天光天光天 1st Mahābrahma 大梵天大梵天大梵天 3 Brahmapāriṣadya 梵眾天梵眾天梵眾天 Brahmapurohita 梵輔天梵輔天梵輔天 2 Brahmakāyika 梵世天梵世諸天梵世諸天 1 Brahma 梵天 Māra Paranirmitavaśavartin 他化自在天他化自在天 4 Nirmāṇarati 化樂天化樂天 3 Tuṣita 兜率陀天兜率陀天 2 Yāma 夜摩天夜摩天 1 Trayastriṃśa 忉利天忉利天 Caturmahārājakāyika 四天王天四天王天 Note: *13: Asaṃjñisattva was possibly omitted by the translator, Kumārajīva 鳩摩羅什. See VI. Texts and Analyses. 20

23 Table 9. T09, No.278 Dafangguangfo huayan jing 大方廣佛華嚴經 ( 六十華嚴 ); T10, No.279 ( 八十華嚴 ), the Mahāyāna Realm Stage Name of Heaven Chinese Translation Location No.278 No.279 無色界 Naivasaṃjñānāsaṃjñāyatana 非有想非無想無色定處非有想非無想處 4 Akiñcanyāyatana 無所有無色定處無所有處 3 Vijñānānantyāyatana 識無色定處識無邊處 2 Ākāśānantyāyatana 虛空無色定處虛空無邊處 1 色界 Maheśvara 摩醯首羅天大自在天 摩醯首羅天 18 4th Akaniṣṭha 色究竟天 阿迦尼吒天色究竟天 阿迦尼吒天 17 Sudarśana 善見天善現天 16 Sudṛśa 善現天善見天 15 Atapa 不熱天 無熱天無熱天 14 Abṛha 不煩天 無煩天無煩天 13 Śuddhāvāsa 淨居天 欲界 Asaṃjñisattva Bṛhatphala 密果天廣果天 12 Puṇyaprasava 無量密身天無量廣天 11 Anabhraka 少密身天少廣天 10 (?) 密身天廣天 3rd Śubhakṛtsna 遍淨天遍淨天 9 Apramāṇaśubha 無量淨天無量淨天 8 Parīttaśubha 少淨天少淨天 7 Śubhā 淨天淨天 2nd Ābhāsvara 光音天光音天 6 Apramāṇābha 無量光天無量光天 5 Parīttābha 少光天少光天 4 Ābhā 光天光天 1st Mahābrahma 大梵天大梵天 3 Brahmapāriṣadya 梵眷屬天梵眾天 Brahmapurohita 梵輔天梵輔天 2 Brahmakāyika 梵身天梵身天 1 Brahma 梵天梵天 Māra Paranirmitavaśavartin 他化自在天他化自在天 他化天 自在天 4 Nirmāṇarati 化樂天 化自在天化樂天 3 Tuṣita 兜率天 兜率陀天兜率陀天 兜率天 2 Yāma 夜摩天須夜摩天 夜摩天 1 Trayastriṃśa 三十三天三十三天 忉利天 Caturmahārājakāyika 四天王四天王眾天 21

24 Table 10. T25, No.1509 Dazhidu lun 大智度論, Later Prajñā., the Mahāyāna Realm Stage Names of Heaven Chinese Translation Location 無色界 Naivasaṃjñānāsaṃjñāyatana( 非有想非無想處天 ) 4 Akiñcanyāyatana ( 無所有處天 ) 3 Vijñānānantyāyatana ( 識無邊處天 識處天 ) 2 Ākāśānantyāyatana ( 虛空無邊處天 空處天 ) 1 色界 Maheśvara 大自在天 18 4th Akaniṣṭha ( 色究竟天 阿迦尼吒天 阿迦膩吒天 ) 17 Sudarśana ( 憙見天 妙見天 喜見天 ) 16 Sudṛśa ( 妙見天 快見天 ) 15 Atapa ( 無熱天 不熱天 ) 14 Abṛha ( 無誑天 阿浮呵那天 ) 13 Śuddhāvāsa 淨居天 欲界 Asaṃjñisattva ( 無想天 ) Bṛhatphala ( 廣果天 ) 12 Puṇyaprasava ( 福德天 得福天 ) 11 Anabhraka ( 無蔭行天 阿那婆伽天 ) 10 (?) 3rd Śubhakṛtsna ( 遍淨天 ) 9 Apramāṇaśubha ( 無量淨天 ) 8 Parīttaśubha ( 少淨天 ) 7 Śubhā ( 淨天 ) 2nd Ābhāsvara ( 光音天 ) 6 Apramāṇābha ( 無量光天 ) 5 Parīttābha ( 少光天 ) 4 Ābhā ( 光天 ) 1st Mahābrahma ( 大梵天 ) 大梵天 3 Brahmapāriṣadya ( 梵會天 梵眾天 ) Brahmapurohita ( 梵輔天 ) 梵輔天 2 Brahmakāyika ( 梵眾天 梵身天 ) 梵眾天 1 Brahma ( 梵眾天 ) 梵世天 Māra Paranirmitavaśavartin ( 他化自在天 ) 4 Nirmāṇarati ( 化樂天 化自樂天 ) 3 Tuṣita ( 兜率陀天 ) 2 Yāma ( 夜摩天 ) 1 Trayastriṃśa ( 三十三天 ) Caturmahārājakāyika ( 四天王天 ) Notes: (...) are quotations from T08, No.223 大品般若經. Independence is indirectly denied. 22

25 Table 11. T27, No.1545 Apidamo dapiposha lun 阿毘達磨大毘婆沙論, The Sarvāstivāda school 有部 in Kaśmīr Realm Stage Names of Heaven Chinese Translation Location 無色界 Naivasaṃjñānāsaṃjñāyatana 非想非非想處 + Akiñcanyāyatana 無所有處 + Vijñānānantyāyatana 識無邊處 + Ākāśānantyāyatana 空無邊處 + 色界 欲界 Maheśvara 4th Akaniṣṭha 阿迦膩瑟搋天 色究竟天 16 Sudarśana 善見天 15 Sudṛśa 善現天 14 Atapa 無熱天 13 Abṛha 無煩天 12 Śuddhāvāsa 五淨居 Asaṃjñisattva 無想天 Bṛhatphala 廣果天 11 Puṇyaprasava 福生天 10 Anabhraka 無雲天 9 (?) 3rd Śubhakṛtsna 遍淨天 8 Apramāṇaśubha 無量淨天 7 Parīttaśubha 少淨天 6 Śubhā 2nd Ābhāsvara 極光淨天 5 Apramāṇābha 無量光天 4 Parīttābha 少光天 3 Ābhā 1st Mahābrahma 大梵天 Brahmapāriṣadya Brahmapurohita 梵輔天 2 Brahmakāyika 梵眾天 1 Brahma 梵世 Māra 魔 Paranirmitavaśavartin 他化自在天 4 Nirmāṇarati 樂變化天 3 Tuṣita 睹史多天 2 Yāma 夜摩天 1 Trayastriṃśa Caturmahārājakāyika 三十三天四大王眾天 Notes: Independence is directly denied. Independence is indirectly denied. + It has no location. 23

26 Table 12. T29, No.1558 Apidamo jushe lun 阿毘達磨俱舍論 ; and T29, No.1559 Apidamo jushe shilun 阿毘達磨俱舍釋論, Kośa., according to the Sarvāstivāda school 有部 in Gandhāra and/or the Sautrāntika school 經量部 Realm Stage Names of Heaven Chinese Translation No.1558 No.1559 Location 無色界 Naivasaṃjñānāsaṃjñāyatana 非想非非想處非想非非想入 + Akiñcanyāyatana 無所有處無有無邊入 + Vijñānānantyāyatana 識無邊處識無邊入 + Ākāśānantyāyatana 空無邊處空無邊入 + 色界 欲界 Maheśvara 4th Akaniṣṭha 色究竟天無下 17 Sudarśana 善見天善見 16 Sudṛśa 善現天善現 15 Atapa 無熱天無熱 14 Abṛha 無煩天無大求 13 Śuddhāvāsa 五淨居淨居天 Asaṃjñisattva 無想天無想天 Bṛhatphala 廣果天廣果 12 Puṇyaprasava 福生天福生 11 Anabhraka 無雲天無雲 10 (?) 3rd Śubhakṛtsna 遍淨天遍淨 9 Apramāṇaśubha 無量淨天無量淨 8 Parīttaśubha 少淨天小淨 7 Śubhā 2nd Ābhāsvara 極光淨天遍光 6 Apramāṇābha 無量光天無量光 5 Parīttābha 少光天小光 4 Ābhā 1st Mahābrahma 大梵天大梵 3 Brahmapāriṣadya Brahmapurohita 梵輔天梵先行 2 Brahmakāyika 梵眾天梵眾 1 Brahma 梵世 Māra Paranirmitavaśavartin 他化自在天他化自在天 4 Nirmāṇarati 樂變化天化樂天 3 Tuṣita 睹史多天善知足天 2 Yāma 夜摩天唱樂天 1 Trayastriṃśa 三十三天三十三天 Caturmahārājakāyika 四大王眾天四天王天 Notes: Independence is directly denied. Independence is indirectly denied. + It has no location. 24

27 Table 13. T29, No.1562 Apidamo shunzhengli lun 阿毘達磨順正理論, The Sarvāstivāda school 有部 in Kaśmīr Realm Stage Names of Heaven Chinese Translation Location 無色界 Naivasaṃjñānāsaṃjñāyatana 非想非非想處 + Akiñcanyāyatana 無所有處 + Vijñānānantyāyatana 識無邊處 + Ākāśānantyāyatana 空無邊處 + 色界 欲界 Maheśvara 4th Akaniṣṭha 色究竟天 16 Sudarśana 善見天 15 Sudṛśa 善現天 14 Atapa 無熱天 13 Abṛha 無繁天 12 Śuddhāvāsa 五淨居 Asaṃjñisattva 無想天 Bṛhatphala 廣果天 11 Puṇyaprasava 福生天 10 Anabhraka 無雲天 9 (?) 3rd Śubhakṛtsna 遍淨天 8 Apramāṇaśubha 無量淨天 7 Parīttaśubha 少淨天 6 Śubhā 2nd Ābhāsvara 極光淨天 5 Apramāṇābha 無量光天 4 Parīttābha 少光天 3 Ābhā 1st Mahābrahma 大梵天 Brahmapāriṣadya Brahmapurohita 梵輔天 2 Brahmakāyika 梵眾天 1 Brahma 梵世 Māra Paranirmitavaśavartin 他化自在天 4 Nirmāṇarati 樂變化天 3 Tuṣita 覩史多天 2 Yāma 夜摩天 1 Trayastriṃśa Caturmahārājakāyika 三十三天四大王眾天 Notes: Independence is directly denied. Independence is indirectly denied. + It has no location. 25

28 Table 14. T30, No.1579 Yuqie shidi lun 瑜伽師地論, The Mahāyāna Yogācāra school 瑜伽行派 Realm Stage Names of Heaven Chinese Translation Location 無色界 Naivasaṃjñānāsaṃjñāyatana 非想非非想處 (4) Akiñcanyāyatana 無所有處 (3) Vijñānānantyāyatana 識無邊處 (2) Ākāśānantyāyatana 空無邊處 (1) 色界 Maheśvara 大自在 18 4th Akaniṣṭha 色究竟 17 Sudarśana 善見 16 Sudṛśa 善現 15 Atapa 無熱 14 Abṛha 無煩 13 Śuddhāvāsa 五淨宮地 Asaṃjñisattva 無想天 Bṛhatphala 廣果天 12 Puṇyaprasava 福生天 11 Anabhraka 無雲天 10 (?) 3rd Śubhakṛtsna 遍淨天 9 Apramāṇaśubha 無量淨天 8 Parīttaśubha 少淨天 7 Śubhā 2nd Ābhāsvara 極淨光天 6 Apramāṇābha 無量光天 5 Parīttābha 少光天 4 Ābhā 1st Mahābrahma 大梵天 3 Brahmapāriṣadya Brahmapurohita 梵前益天 2 Brahmakāyika 梵眾天 1 Brahma 梵世 梵世間 欲界 Māra 摩羅天宮 Paranirmitavaśavartin 他化自在天 4 Nirmāṇarati 樂化天 3 Tuṣita 知足天 2 Yāma 時分天 1 Trayastriṃśa Caturmahārājakāyika Notes: Independence is directly denied. Independence is indirectly denied. 三十三天四大王眾天 26

29 Table 15. T32, No.1644 Foshuo lishi apitan lun 佛説立世阿毘曇論, The Saṃmitīya School 正量部 Realm Stage Names of Heaven Chinese Translation Location 無色界 Naivasaṃjñānāsaṃjñāyatana 非想非非想入天 4 Akiñcanyāyatana 無所有入天 3 Vijñānānantyāyatana 識無邊入天 2 Ākāśānantyāyatana 空無邊入 1 色界 欲界 Note: * exceptional. Maheśvara 4th Akaniṣṭha 阿迦尼吒天 18 Atapa * 不焼天 * 17 Abṛha * 不煩天 * 16 Sudarśana * 善見天 * 15 Sudṛśa * 善現天 * 14 Śuddhāvāsa 那含天 Asaṃjñisattva 無想天 13 Bṛhatphala 廣果天 12 Puṇyaprasava 生福天 11 Anabhraka 無雲天 10 (?) 3rd Śubhakṛtsna 遍淨天 9 Apramāṇaśubha 無量淨天 8 Parīttaśubha 少淨天 7 Śubhā 2nd Ābhāsvara 遍勝光天 6 Apramāṇābha 無量光天 5 Parīttābha 少光天 4 Ābhā 1st Mahābrahma 大梵 3 Brahmapāriṣadya * 梵眾 梵眾諸天 * 2 Brahmapurohita 梵先行 1 Brahmakāyika Brahma 梵處 Māra Paranirmitavaśavartin 波羅維摩婆奢 他化自在天 4 Nirmāṇarati 維摩羅昵 化樂天 3 Tuṣita 兜率陀天 2 Yāma 夜摩天 1 Trayastriṃśa Caturmahārājakāyika 忉利 三十三天四大王 四大天王天 27

30 Table 16. T53, No.2121 Jinglü yixiang 經律異相, An Example of the Chinese Interpretation of the Buddhist Heavens in 516 CE Realm Stage Names of Heaven Chinese Translation Location 無色界 Naivasaṃjñānāsaṃjñāyatana 非想非非想入處 有想無想天 4 Akiñcanyāyatana 無所有入處 無所有處智天 3 Vijñānānantyāyatana 無量識入處 識處智天 2 Ākāśānantyāyatana 無量空入處 空處智天 1 色界 Maheśvara 摩醯首羅天 大自在 19 4th Akaniṣṭha 色究竟天 18 Sudarśana 大善見天 17 Sudṛśa 善見天 16 Atapa 無熱天 15 Abṛha 不煩天 14 Śuddhāvāsa 五淨居 Asaṃjñisattva 無想天 13 Bṛhatphala 嚴飾果實天 果實 Puṇyaprasava 無量嚴飾天 12 Anabhraka 少嚴飾天 11 (?) 嚴飾天 10 3rd Śubhakṛtsna 遍淨天 首陀斤 Apramāṇaśubha 無量淨天 9 Parīttaśubha 少淨天 8 Śubhā 淨天 7 2nd Ābhāsvara 光音天 Apramāṇābha 無量光天 6 Parīttābha 少光天 5 Ābhā 光天 4 1st Mahābrahma 大梵天 3 Brahmapāriṣadya 梵眾天 2 Brahmapurohita 梵輔天 1 Brahmakāyika 梵身天 梵迦夷 Brahma 欲界 Māra 魔天 (5) Paranirmitavaśavartin 他化 4 Nirmāṇarati 化樂 3 Tuṣita 兜率 2 Yāma 炎魔 1 Trayastriṃśa Caturmahārājakāyika Note: Independence is directly denied. 忉利四天王 28

31 Table 17. T54, No Fanyi mingyi ji 翻譯名義集, An Example of the Chinese Interpretation of the Buddhist Heavens in 1143 CE Realm Stage Names of Heaven Chinese Translation Location + 無色界 Naivasaṃjñānāsaṃjñāyatana 非有想非夢想 Akiñcanyāyatana 無所有處 Vijñānānantyāyatana 識處 Ākāśānantyāyatana 空處 色界 4th Akaniṣṭha = Maheśvara * 色究竟 = 摩醯首羅 Sudarśana 善見 Sudṛśa 善見 Atapa 無熱 Abṛha 無煩 Śuddhāvāsa 五那含 Asaṃjñisattva 無想天 13 Bṛhatphala 廣果 Puṇyaprasava 福生 Anabhraka 無雲 (?) 3rd Śubhakṛtsna 遍淨 Apramāṇaśubha 無量淨 Parīttaśubha 少淨 Śubhā 2nd Ābhāsvara 光音 Apramāṇābha 無量光 Parīttābha 少光 Ābhā 1st Mahābrahma 大梵 3 3 Brahmapāriṣadya Brahmapurohita 梵輔 Brahmakāyika 梵眾 Brahma 欲界 Māra 魔羅 (5) (5) (5) Paranirmitavaśavartin 他化自在天 Nirmāṇarati 化樂天 Tuṣita 兜率天 Yāma 夜摩天 Trayastriṃśa Caturmahārājakāyika 忉利天四天王天 Notes: + This scripture shows three kinds of interpretation. * Maheśvara is thought to be identical with Akaniṣṭha. Independence is directly denied. 29

32 Table 18. T77, No Himitsu mandara jūjūshin ron 秘密曼荼羅十住心論, An example of the Japanese Interpretation of the Buddhist Heavens in ca. 830 CE Realm Stage Names of Heaven Chinese Translation Location 無色界 Naivasaṃjñānāsaṃjñāyatana 非想非非想處天 4 Akiñcanyāyatana 無處有處天 3 Vijñānānantyāyatana 識無邊處天 2 Ākāśānantyāyatana 空無邊處天 1 色界 Maheśvara * 4th Akaniṣṭha 色究竟天 阿迦膩吒天 16 Sudarśana 善見天 15 Sudṛśa 善現天 14 Atapa 無熱天 13 Abṛha 無繁 無煩天 12 Śuddhāvāsa Asaṃjñisattva 無想天 Bṛhatphala 廣果天 11 Puṇyaprasava 福生天 10 Anabhraka 無雲天 9 (?) 3rd Śubhakṛtsna 遍淨天 8 Apramāṇaśubha 無量淨天 7 Parīttaśubha 少淨天 6 Śubhā 2nd Ābhāsvara 極光淨天 5 Apramāṇābha 無量光天 4 Parīttābha 少光天 3 Ābhā 1st Mahābrahma 大梵天 Brahmapāriṣadya Brahmapurohita 梵輔天 2 Brahmakāyika 梵眾天 1 Brahma 欲界 Māra 魔波旬天 Paranirmitavaśavartin 他化自在天 4 Nirmāṇarati 化樂天 3 Tuṣita 覩史天 2 Yāma 夜摩天 1 Trayastriṃśa Caturmahārājakāyika 忉利天四天王天 Notes: * Maheśvara is thought to exist above the 4th dhyāna or even beyond the Arūpadhātu. Independence is directly denied. 30

33 VI. Texts and Analyses Based on the hypothesis previously mentioned in the introduction, this manual organizes and analyzes the selected scriptures in the following manner: 1. Basic Enumerations 2. Analysis 2-1. Brief summary 2-2. Kāmadhātu 欲界 2-3. Māra 魔 ( 魔天 ) 2-4. The first dhyāna 初靜慮 ( 初禪 ) of the Rūpadhātu 色界 2-5. The second dhyāna 第二靜慮 ( 二禪 ) of the Rūpadhātu 2-6. The third dhyāna 第三靜慮 ( 三禪 ) of the Rūpadhātu 2-7. The lower part of the fourth dhyāna 第四靜慮 ( 四禪 ) of the Rūpadhātu 2-8. Asaṃjñisattva 無想天 2-9. The upper part of the fourth dhyāna of the Rūpadhātu Maheśvara 摩醯首羅天 ( 大自在天 ) Arūpadhātu 無色界 3. Others To point out the corresponding Chinese terms in the scriptures, the names of the heavens in the Kāmadhātu 欲界 are highlighted in gray; those of the first dhyāna 初靜慮 ( 初禪 ) of the Rūpadhātu 色界 in yellow; the second dhyāna 第二靜慮 ( 二禪 ) in blue; the third dhyāna 第三靜慮 ( 三禪 ) in green; the fourth dhyāna 第四靜慮 ( 四禪 ) in pink; those of the Arūpadhātu 無色界 in red. In some cases, different colour fonts are used to show other key terms. The contents of each of these sections above are further explained below: 1. Basic Enumerations This section shows typical examples of the enumerations of the heavens (or the devas) of the Kāmadhātu 欲界, the Rūpadhātu 色界, and the Arūpadhātu 無色界, as indicated in the scripture being analyzed. 2. Analysis 2-1. Brief summary This section shows how many heavens independently exist in the Kāmadhātu 欲界, the Rūpadhātu 色界, and the Arūpadhātu 無色界 respectively. Buddhists from the various schools seem to have broadly believed that there are six independent heavens in the Kāmadhātu, 18 independent heavens in the Rūpadhātu, and four independent heavens in the Arūpadhātu. However, some scriptures are not in agreement about the number of the heavens of the Rūpadhātu. According to scripture T27, No.1545 阿毘達磨大毘婆沙論 (the Sarvāstivāda school 有部 in Kaśmīr) and scripture T29, No.1562 阿毘達磨順正理論 (also the Sarvāstivāda school in Kaśmīr), there are 16 independent heavens and two dependent heavens in the Rūpadhātu. 31

34 In comparison, scripture T29, No.1558 阿毘達磨俱舍論 (the Sarvāstivāda school in Gandhāra and/or the Sautrāntika school 經量部 ) claims that there are 17 independent heavens and one dependent heaven in the Rūpadhātu. Kūkai 空海 ( CE), one of the most outstanding Japanese monks of the Mahāyāna, wrote in his scripture, T77, No 秘密曼荼羅十住心論, that there are 16 independent heavens and two dependent heavens in the Rūpadhātu. This is entirely based on the Fansheng jiedi zhang 凡聖界地章, which was compiled by Liangben 良賁 ( CE), a renowned Chinese monk of the Tang dynasty 唐 ( CE). All the Chinese versions of the Fansheng jiedi zhang have been lost in China. On the other hand, a handwritten copy was brought to Japan by Kūkai. Both handwritten and printed versions were made from it; some of them are still extant in Japan. It should be noted that many parts of Kūkai s scripture T77, No. 2425, are exact copies of the contents of the Fansheng jiedi zhang Kāmadhātu 欲界 This section shows how many and what heavens independently exist in the Kāmadhātu 欲界. Many scriptures uniformly mention that there are six independent heavens in the Kāmadhātu. These are: Caturmahārājakāyika; Trayastriṃśa; Yāma; Tuṣita; Nirmāṇarati; and Paranirmitavaśavartin, from below upwards Māra 魔 ( 魔天 ) This section discusses if the heaven (or palace) of Māra 魔 ( 魔天 ) independently exists, or not. Some scriptures write that the heaven of Māra independently exists. Others mention that it belongs to the heaven of Paranirmitavaśavartin 他化自在天 The first dhyāna 初靜慮 ( 初禪 ) of the Rūpadhātu 色界 This section discusses how many and what heavens independently exist in the first dhyāna 初靜慮 ( 初禪 ) of the Rūpadhātu 色界. Three, four or five names are often mentioned in enumerations seen in a scripture. However, it seems to have been broadly believed that there are three independent heavens. The author of this manual assumes at this moment in time that the three independent heavens are the heavens of Brahmakāyika, Brahmapurohita, and Mahābrahma, from below upwards. In addition, Brahma (brahmā devā / brahmaloka / prathamadhyānopapanna) is the generic name of the heavens of the first dhyāna. Attention should be paid to a possibility that the heaven of Brahmapāriṣadya, if it exists, is not independent but belongs to the heaven of Mahābrahma. The independence of the heaven of Brahmapāriṣadya is indirectly denied by the scriptures of the Mahāyāna, such as scripture T25, No.1509 大智度論 and scripture T30, No.1579 瑜伽師地論, as well as the scriptures of the Vehicle of the Hearers, particularly scriptures No.1545 阿毘達磨大毘婆沙論, No.1558 阿毘達磨俱舍論, T29, No.1562 阿毘達磨順正理論, and the like. The scriptures of the Sarvāstivāda school in Kaśmīr, such as scripture T27, No.1545 and scripture T29, No.1562, do not mention the existence of the heaven of Brahmapāriṣadya at all. Moreover, they clearly state that there are only two independent heavens in the first dhyāna. According to them, the heavens of Brahmakāyika and Brahmapurohita are independent; on the other hand, the heaven of Mahābrahma is not independent but belongs to the heaven of Brahmapurohita. Furthermore, scripture T27, No.1562 even explains that the heaven of Mahābrahma cannot be independent because it is a single or a standing-alone deva, as cited below: 32

35 阿毘達磨順正理論 ( 卷 21) T29, 456c 457a 此例不然 大梵一故 要依同分 立天處名 非一梵王 可名同分 雖壽量等 與餘不同 然由一身 不成同分 故與梵輔 合立一天 高下雖殊 然地無別 In terms of results, it appears that, as far as the heaven of Mahābrahma is concerned, the above explanations written in scriptures T27, No.1545 and T29, No.1562 are based on the characteristic ideas of the Sarvāstivāda school in Kaśmīr. To be more precise, in case three names (three of the following four: Brahmakāyika, Brahmapurohita, Brahmapāriṣadya and Mahābrahma) are enumerated (see examples shown in the Basic Enumerations of each scripture in this Chapter), there are two possible enumeration patterns of the heavens, regardless of their independence. One is as follows: in most cases, the three heavens are Brahmakāyika, Brahmapurohita and Mahābrahma, from below upwards. The other explanation is as follows: as exceptionally indicated in scripture T32, No.1644 佛説立世阿毘曇論, the three heavens are Brahmapurohita, Brahmapāriṣadya and Mahābrahma, from below upwards. In case four names (four of the following five: Brahma, Brahmakāyika, Brahmapurohita, Brahmapāriṣadya and Mahābrahma) are mentioned in an enumeration, there are three possible enumeration patterns of the independent heavens. The first enumeration pattern is as follows: as commonly believed by many modern scholars (see II. References, 1-7. Mochizuki 望月, 色界 1741a), Brahmakāyika is the generic name of the heavens of the first dhyāna. Accordingly, the three independent heavens are Brahmapurohita, Brahmapāriṣadya and Mahābrahma, from below upwards. The second enumeration pattern, which the author of this manual believes is more likely than the former, is as follows: Brahmapāriṣadya is not independent; the three independent heavens are the heavens of Brahmakāyika, Brahmapurohita and Mahābrahma, from below upwards. For example, the scripture T35, No 華嚴經探玄記 writes that 梵眷屬天 Brahmapāriṣadya, 光天 Ābhā, 淨天 Śubhā, and 密身天 (?) are the generic names of the heavens of the first, the second, the third and the fourth dhyāna respectively. To quote: 華嚴經探玄記 ( 卷 7) T35, 236c 然餘處說 於四禪中 各有三天 此各四者 皆一是總餘 三是別故也 謂 初禪中梵眷屬天 二禪中光天 三禪中淨天 四禪密身天 此各是總 故不同也 又四禪中 少密身餘處說名福愛天 無量密身是稱福生天 密果是果寶天 亦名廣果 以第四禪天身行斷無出入息故 俱名密也 六十華嚴 大方廣佛華嚴經 ( 卷 13) T09, 480c 481a 百萬億梵天王 一心觀察 百萬億摩醯首羅天王 恭敬讚歎 百萬億菩薩 恭敬讚歎 百萬億天女 恭敬供養 百萬億願天 敬心頂禮 百萬億宿命親近善知識天 妙聲讚歎 百萬億梵身天 布身敬禮 百萬億梵輔天 恭敬頂禮 百萬億梵眷屬天 圍遶侍衛 百萬億大梵王 讚歎稱揚無量功德 百萬億光天 五體投地 百萬億少光天 宣揚讚歎佛世難值 百萬億無量光天 讚歎禮拜 百萬億光音天 讚歎如來 難遇難見 百萬億淨天 恭敬禮拜 百萬億少淨天 恭敬禮拜 百萬億無量淨天 樂見佛故 於虛空中自投來下 百萬億遍淨天 合掌敬住 百萬億密身天 憶本功德稱揚讚歎 百萬億少密身天 生如來想一心求見 百萬億無量密身天 清淨善業恭敬禮拜 百萬億密果天 布身敬禮 百萬億無煩天 得堅固信恭敬禮拜 百萬億無熱天 合掌觀察心無厭足 百萬億善現天 恭敬禮拜 百萬億善見天 憶念無量佛所 恭敬供養心無厭足 百萬億阿迦尼吒天 恭敬禮拜 百萬億種種天 皆大歡喜恭敬讚歎 百萬億諸天 以種種善慧而莊嚴之 33

36 In addition, as previously explained, the heaven of Brahmapāriṣadya is not mentioned in the scriptures of the Vehicle of the Hearers, especially the Sarvāstivāda school in Kaśmīr. Scripture T29, No.1562 of the school considers Mahābrahma as a single or a standing-alone deva. Accordingly, the school does not think that it has an independent heaven. On the other hand, the term Brahmapāriṣadya apparently means retinue of Mahābrahma, because, if Brahmapāriṣadya is mentioned in a scripture, it is usually higher in ranking than Brahmapurohita (Brahma-priest or minister), judging from their positions in the enumeration. If so, it is possible that Brahmapāriṣadya was adopted by other schools as devas serving and dependent on Mahābrahma, in order to rationalize their idea that Mahābrahma has an independent heaven, where it is not a single or a standing-alone deva. If that is the case, Brahmapāriṣadya is not the generic name of the heavens of the first dhyāna, but a heaven or devas belonging to the heaven of Mahābrahma. Further consideration on this analysis is needed. The third enumeration pattern is as follows: as indicated in T25, No.1509 大智度論, Brahma 梵世天 is the generic name of the heavens of the first dhyāna. The three independent heavens are Brahmakāyika 梵眾天 ; Brahmapurohita 梵輔天 ; and Mahābrahma 大梵天, from below upwards. It should be noted that this enumeration of the three independent heavens are the same as the second case. In case five names (Brahma, Brahmakāyika, Brahmapurohita, Brahmapāriṣadya and Mahābrahma) are mentioned in an enumeration, there are four possible enumeration patterns. The first enumeration pattern is as follows: Brahma is the generic name of the heavens of the first dhyāna. The heaven of Brahmapāriṣadya is not independent. The three independent heavens are Brahmakāyika, Brahmapurohita, and Mahābrahma, from below upwards. The author of this manual assumes that this is the most likely pattern, because this seems to make the least contradiction. The second possible pattern is as follows: Brahma is the generic name of the heavens of the whole Rūpadhātu. Brahmakāyika is the generic name of the heavens of the first dhyāna. The three independent heavens are Brahmapurohita, Brahmapāriṣadya, and Mahābrahma, from below upwards. The third pattern is as follows: Brahma is the generic name of the heavens of the whole Rūpadhātu. The heaven of Brahmapāriṣadya is not independent. The three independent heavens are the heavens of Brahmakāyika, Brahmapurohita, and Mahābrahma, from below upwards. The fourth pattern is as follows: Scripture T35, No 大方廣佛華嚴經疏 indicates that 梵天 Brahma is the generic name of the heavens of the first dhyāna. It mentions that the first names of the heavens of the four dhyānas are the generic names of the heavens of the respective dhyānas. The scripture also explains that there are four independent heavens: 梵身天 Brahmakāyika, 梵輔天 Brahmapurohita, 梵眾天 Brahmapāriṣadya, and 大梵天 Mahābrahma, from below upwards. The scripture describes it as follows: 大方廣佛華嚴經疏 ( 卷 24) T35, 680a 然四禪初一 皆是總標 則初靜慮四 二三各三 第四有八 還成十八 正理初說有三 今加梵身 晉經梵眾名梵眷屬 若然身亦眾義 則梵身是外所領之眾 梵眾則為內眷屬眾 梵輔即大梵前行列侍御大梵 即彼天王獲中間定 初生後歿威德等勝 故名為大 34

37 八十華嚴 大方廣佛華嚴經 ( 卷 21) T10, 113b 此菩薩 聞四天王眾天 三十三天 夜摩天 兜率陀天 化樂天 他化自在天 梵天 梵身天 梵輔天 梵眾天 大梵天 光天 少光天 無量光天 光音天 淨天 少淨天 無量淨天 遍淨天 廣天 少廣天 無量廣天 廣果天 無煩天 無熱天 善見天 善現天 色究竟天 乃至聞聲聞緣覺 具足功德 However, as far as the four independent heavens in the first dhyāna are concerned, the above explanation clearly contradicts the contents of scriptures T25, No.1509 大智度論, T30, No.1579 瑜伽師地論 and others. Therefore, it is presumably not an original Indian Buddhist idea, although it is interesting insofar as it may reflect Chinese notions of the Buddhist heavens The second dhyāna 第二靜慮 ( 二禪 ) of the Rūpadhātu This section shows how many and what heavens independently exist in the second dhyāna 第二靜慮 ( 二禪 ). There are three independent heavens: Parīttābha, Apramāṇābha and Ābhāsvara, from below upwards. Ābhā 光天 appears to be the generic name of the heavens of the second dhyāna as indicated above in scriptures T35, No 華嚴經探玄記 and T35, No 大方廣佛華嚴經疏 The third dhyāna 第三靜慮 ( 三禪 ) of the Rūpadhātu This section illustrates how many and what heavens independently exist in the third dhyāna 第三靜慮 ( 三禪 ). There are three independent heavens: Parīttaśubha, Apramāṇaśubha, and Śubhakṛtsna, from below upwards. Śubhā 淨天 is apparently the generic name of the heavens of the third dhyāna as indicated above in scriptures T35, No 華嚴經探玄記 and T35, No 大方廣佛華嚴經疏 The lower part of the fourth dhyāna 第四靜慮 ( 四禪 ) of the Rūpadhātu This section explains how many and what heavens independently exist in the lower part of the fourth dhyāna 第四靜慮 ( 四禪 ). Three or four names are mentioned in Chinese translations as the heavens located below the heaven of Asaṃjñisattva 無想天. The original names of the three heavens can be confirmed in Sanskrit scriptures. They are the independent heavens of Anabhraka, Puṇyaprasava, and Bṛhatphala, from below upwards. In case four names are mentioned in an enumeration, one of them, apparently the first one that is listed, is the generic name of the heavens of the lower part of the fourth dhyāna, as indicated above in scriptures T35, No 華嚴經探玄記 and T35, No 大方廣佛華嚴經疏. However, the author of this manual has found only its Chinese translation, and not its Sanskrit name Asaṃjñisattva 無想天 This section analyzes if the heaven of Asaṃjñisattva 無想天 independently exists in the fourth dhyāna, or not. The answer differs depending on the schools. The Buddhists of the earlier Mahāyāna seemed to believe that there are 18 independent heavens in the Rūpadhātu including Asaṃjñisattva 無想天 as an independent heaven (see IV. Tables 3-3. Earlier Prajñā.). On the other hand, those of the later Mahāyāna apparently thought that there 35

38 are 18 independent heavens in the Rūpadhātu including Maheśvara 摩醯首羅天 ( 大自在天 ) as an independent heaven instead of Asaṃjñisattva (see IV. Table 3-3. Later Prajñā., Avataṃsaka, Yogācāra) The upper part of the fourth dhyāna of the Rūpadhātu This section explains how many and what heavens independently exist in the upper part of the fourth dhyāna. There are five independent heavens: Abṛha, Atapa, Sudṛśa, Sudarśana, and Akaniṣṭha, from below upwards. Śuddhāvāsa is the generic name of the heavens of the upper part of the fourth dhyāna Maheśvara 摩醯首羅天 ( 大自在天 ) This section discusses if the heaven of Maheśvara 摩醯首羅天 ( 大自在天 ) independently exists in the Rūpadhātu, or not. It appears that neither the Buddhists of the schools of the Vehicle of the Hearers, nor those of the schools of the earlier Mahāyāna, thought that the heaven of Maheśvara 摩醯首羅天 independently exists in the Rūpadhātu. On the other hand, Buddhists of the schools of the later Mahāyāna apparently believed that there are 18 independent heavens in the Rūpadhātu including the heaven of Maheśvara 摩醯首羅天, which independently exists above the heaven of Akaniṣṭha. However, there is seemingly no scripture except T24, No1484 Fanwang jing 梵網經, which clearly indicates (as cited below) that it is located within the fourth dhyāna: 梵網經 ( 卷 1) T24, 997b 爾時釋迦牟尼佛 在第四禪地中摩醯首羅天王宮 Arūpadhātu 無色界 This section explains how many and what heavens exist independently (or without locations) in the Arūpadhātu 無色界. Many scriptures uniformly write that there are four heavens: Ākāśānantyāyatana, Vijñānānantyāyatana, Akiñcanyāyatana, and Naivasaṃjñānāsaṃjñāyatana. 3. Others Additional information that should be considered to understand more features of the scripture is provided in this section. 36