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1 銀髮族休閒 The Relevance of Leisure in Theories of Aging 南華大學休閒產業經濟學系黃瓊玉 2012 年 11 月 18 日

2 The Relevance of Leisure in Theories of Aging 當我們在探討銀髮族休閒時, 為什麼需要研讀 Theory of Aging( 老化理論 )? The way leisure professionals design, implement, and evaluate leisure services, whether community based or institutional, is influenced by our perceptions of later life and how older adults adapt to the changes that aging brings. Providers of leisure services must understand a variety of theories of aging in order to provide meaningful services for older adults.

3 The Relevance of Leisure in Theories of Aging The objectives of this chapter: Explain the relevance of aging theory in leisure research and practice Identify and explain several psychological theories of aging Identify and explain several sociological theories of aging Explain how aging theories have developed over time Discuss prominent critiques of theories of aging

4 Leisure as a Context for Continuity and Change Several general points about the evidence of later-life leisure Overall activity involvement appears to decrease with age. (Agahi et al. 2006; Cutler & Hendricks 1990); exception: television watching The relative influence of age and history on leisure activity Seppo Iso-Ahola (1980) The relative strength of preferences for novel versus familiar leisure forms over the life course. Low Relative strength High Childhood Early Adulthood Old age Preference for novelty Preference for the familiar

5 Leisure as a Context for Continuity and Change The evidence has been stronger for maintaining activities in later life rather than for abandoning them or adopting new ones (Iso-Ahola et al. 1994; McGuire et al. 1987) The prevailing evidence suggests continuity of interests rather than change (Cutler & Hendricks 1990, Iwasaki & Smale 1998, Lee & King 2003, Singleton et al. 1993)

6 Psychological Theories of Aging Theories of control and dependence - Selective optimization with compensation model Older adults choose among activities, relinquishing some while optimizing their abilities in others, using both technological and human resources to compensate for changes in order to continue participating in the chosen activities. - Socioemotional selectivity theory The view that older people choose to interact with familiar people to afford positive feelings and avoid unfamiliar relationships that may lead in unpredictable and unpleasant directions.

Psychological Theories of Aging - Psychosocial stage theory Based on Freud took steps further: what happens when you are young impacts later life Erik Erikson Focus on psychosocial development

7 Psychological Theories of Aging - Psychosocial stage theory Based on Freud took steps further: what happens when you are young impacts later life Erik Erikson Focus on psychosocial development throughout the life cycle 8 stages of ego development 危機正面與負面特質平衡受社會文化重要他人影響成功下階段不順利阻礙下階段 Last stage: Ego Integrity vs. Despair ( 統整 vs 絕望 ) Purpose: to establish a sense of meaning in one s life, rather than feeling despair or bitterness that life was wasted; to accept oneself and one s life without despair. Erik Erikson ( )

8 Psychological Theories of Aging Erikson 心裡社會發展理論的八個階段階段年齡發展危機 (developmental crisis) 與任務發展順利的特徵發展障礙者特徵 1 0-1( 嬰兒期 ) 信任與不信任對人信任, 有安全感面對新環境時會焦慮 2 2-3( 幼兒期 ) 自主行動 ( 自律 ) 與羞怯懷疑 ( 害羞 ) 能按社會行為要求表現目的性行為缺乏信心, 行動畏首畏尾 3 4-6( 學齡前兒童期 ) 自動自發 ( 主動 ) 與退縮愧疚 ( 罪惡感 ) 主動好奇, 行動有方向, 開始有責任感畏懼退縮, 缺少自我價值感 ( 學齡兒童期 ) 勤奮進取與自貶自卑具有求學做事待人的基本能力缺乏生活基本能力, 充滿失敗感 ( 青少年期 - 青春期 ) 自我統整 ( 認同 ) 與角色混淆有了明確的自我觀念與自我追尋的方向生活無目的的無方向, 時而感到徬徨迷失 ( 成年早期 ) 友愛親密與孤癖疏離 ( 親密與孤立 ) 與人相處有親密感與社會疏離, 時感寂寞孤獨 ( 成年中期 ) 精力充沛 ( 生產 ) 與停滯頹廢熱愛家庭關懷社會, 有責任心有正義感不關心別人生活與社會, 缺少生活意義生命終點 ( 成年晚期 - 老年期 ) 自我榮耀 ( 統整 ) 與悲觀絕望隨心所欲, 安享餘年悔恨舊事, 徒呼負負

9 Psychological Theories of Aging 瑞典電影藝術大師伯格曼 (Ingmar Bergman) 野草莓 (Smultronstället, 1957) - 描述一個進入人生最後階段的瑞典醫生, 以薩伯格 (Isak Borg) 的生命故事 - 以記憶想像及作夢的方式, 重新經歷從小孩成年到老年的各個階段的生命歷程藉由這部電影中一個老人對於其生命意義追尋的各個情景, 點出所有的老年人也都有這類的追尋, 傳達 Erikson 理論的論點 : 人生各階段交錯影響, 人生在老年時期達最高潮 Erik H. Erikson, Joan M. Erikson and Helen Q. Kivnick Vital Involvement in Old Age The Experience of Old Age in Our Time (Erikson 老年研究報告人生八大階段 )

10 Psychological Theories of Aging Theories of Self and Identity in Later Life - Innovation theory of successful aging A theory postulating that older adults seek out new leisure activities in order to both recreate aspects of self and to invent new aspects. - Multiple threshold perspectives A theory postulating that older adults seek out new leisure activities in order to both recreate aspects of self and to invent new aspects.

11 Sociological Theories of Aging Activity theory The view that older adults age successfully when they replace lost roles with new roles in later life. Disengagement theory The view that older adults withdraw from relationships and activities in later life to make way for younger people and prepare for death. Continuity theory The view that life patterns developed in earlier life are maintained in later life.

12 Sociological Theories of Aging - Activity theory Havighurst & Colleagues, 1963 Attempted to answer how older adults adjust to age-related changes, such as retirement, poor health, and role loss. Self concept is related to roles then previous roles must be replaced with new ones to remain active. The Meaning of Activity Everyone looks for meaning in life. Activities that people do are made meaningful based upon their values and cultural backgrounds. The environment/context in which an activity takes place also adds meaning to the activity in question. Outcomes of engaging in activity also impact meaning for example: - Satisfaction of participant - Increased Self-esteem - Pragmatic (getting the job done) - Altruistic goal met

Sociological Theories of Aging - Activity theory 小結 The well-adjusted older

activities in voluntary work, churches, leisure organizations The more

in late-life Older adults deny the existence of old age fight the aging

13 Sociological Theories of Aging - Activity theory 小結 The well-adjusted older adult takes on larger numbers and variety of productive roles through activities in voluntary work, churches, leisure organizations The more active, the greater life satisfaction, positive self-concept, and adjustment in late-life Older adults deny the existence of old age fight the aging process Empirical evidence Positive/Negative Correlation between activity & life satisfaction.

Sociological Theories of Aging - Disengagement theory Cummings & Henry, 1961 aging is an inevitable, older people decrease their activity levels, seek more passive roles, interact less frequently

14 Sociological Theories of Aging - Disengagement theory Cummings & Henry, 1961 aging is an inevitable, older people decrease their activity levels, seek more passive roles, interact less frequently with others, and become increasingly preoccupied with their inner lives. Disengagement Theory- Positive People can become more reflective about their lives. People can become less constrained by social roles. After having lavished its light upon the world the sun withdraws its rays in order to illuminate itself Carl Gustav Jung ( ) People become more discerning about relationships, which can help them adjust to increasing frequency of serious illness and death among their peers.

15 Sociological Theories of Aging - Disengagement theory Problems Disengagement Theory Supports Ageist attitudes towards older adults Little empirical support (physical & social stress disengage) Doesn t take into account changing definitions aging Doesn t take into account variation in personalities

16 Sociological Theories of Aging - Continuity theory Atchley, 1989 Shortcomings with other theories led to Substitutes similar roles for lost ones Continue to maintain similar adaptation strategies As we age we become more of what we were Past HX counts - basic personality, attitudes, and behaviors remain constant throughout the life span Each person provides their own standard for successful aging Elders attempt to continue with important activities Elders perceive activities as continuous Successful aging is characterized by how much continuity the elder has with activities

17 Sociological Theories of Aging - Continuity theory Problems with the theory Differences in personality Differences in physical function just want to do nothing! Control over social situation, Socioeconomic effects, Cultural effects.

18 Conclusion Theories of aging are highly debatable. Psychological theories of aging provide insight into how older adults may personally adjust to change and loss associated with later life. Sociological theories consider the impact of broader social factors on aging. All of these theories help us to consider how can we best support older adults in their leisure endeavors.

19 討論 1. Make a list of your current leisure activities. Which of these activities do you think you will participate in after you retire? Will you drop activities or add activities to your repertoire? 2. 根據第一次作業中與退休人士們的訪談內容,which theory (or theories) of aging fits best with your understanding of older adults? 3. 觀察妳 / 你周遭環境中, 提供給老年人的一些相關休閒服務和設施, 這些服務和設施或商品, 跟課堂中所介紹的老化理論有何連結?

20 References

21 References

22 References

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1 * 1 * 1 * 1 * taka@unii.ac.jp 1992, p. 233 2013, p. 78 2. 1. 2014 1992, p. 233 1995, p. 134 2. 2. 3. 1. 2014 2011, 118 3. 2. Psathas 1995, p. 12 seen but unnoticed B B Psathas 1995, p. 23 2004 2006 2004 4 ah