中國的科學與中國的公民：大陸研究在台灣的困境\\

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2 76 Juan J. Linz 1997:

3 Weaver and Rockman, 1993; Mainwaring, 1991; Shugart and Carey, 1992; Mainwaring and Shugart, 1997 Juan Linz Linz, 1994:18 Linz, 1994: 4, 7 Lane and Ersson, 2000: 117 Arend Lijphart 38 Mainwaring and Shugart, 1997: 14 Mainwaring and Shug 1984: 70

4 78 Rosenbloom and Segal, 1998: 442 Mainwaring and Shugart, 1997, p. 15 Lijphart, 1984, p Lane and Ersson, 2000: , 16-17

5 semi-presidentialism Lane and Ersson 2000: Gamarra, 1997: 367 censure Shugart, 1997: Business, Nov. 20, 2000, p. 37. week

6 80 9 Linz Presidential or Parliamentary Democracy: Does It Make a DifferenceLane, 2000: Linz dual democratic legitimacy rigidity Linz, 1994: 6 Linz 1994: 6 Linz 9 Matthew Shugart John Carey accountability indentifiability mutual checks Shugart and Carey, 1992: Shugart Carey 10 Linz 1990 Mainwaring and Shugart, 1997: 3 Lowenstein (1949), Trigueirv (1959), Blondel and Suárez (1981) and Suárez (1982)

7 * * 2000: 271

8 82 Linz, 1994: 25

9 Linz, 1994: 13 Linz, 1994: Linz 7 Ross Perrot Estrada videopolitics Linz, 1994:

10 84 Linz General Treaty o

11 Archer and Shugart, 1997: Riggs Riggs, 1991: 474 Riggs Riggs 1983 Linz 1994: 14 John Major Linz, 1994: 15

12 86 Linz Lin leader of the loyal opposition Linz, 1994: Jean Blondel and Ferdinand Müller-Rommel Alfred Stepan and Cindy Skach Stephan and Skach, 1993: 13

13 Derbyshire Derbyshire 1989, 1991, 1996 unlimited presidentialism Lane and Ersson, 2000: 124

14 88 OECD Derbyshire and Derbyshire, 1989, 1991, Derbyshire and Derbyshire, 1989: 47-48

15 OECD Riggs Riggs, 1994: 66 Riggs Linz Jan-Erik Lane Lane Lane Linz human gini development index index 12 Mainwaring

16 90 OECD Lane 2000: 140 Lane Lane Lane Linz 2000: r p Lane and Ersson, 2000, p.137. Derbyshire Derbyshire GDP r p Lane and Ersson, 2000, p.137. Derbyshire Derbyshire 13 Alfred Stepan Cindy Skach Stepan and Skach, 1993: 7

17 Lane Riggs Linz Linz, 1997: 5 Riggs Riggs, 1994: 67 powerless Riggs semi-powered 14 Riggs Riggs Riggs, 1998:

18 92 politicals Brauer, 193 patronage Ruffing-Hilliard Ruffing-Hilliard, 1991: 302 Riggs Riggs nativity homogeneity O Connor and Sabato, 2000: 19 Riggs Lane

19 Raúl Alfonsín Carlos Menem Jones, 1997: 261, 284 Menem Congressional Quarterly General Accounting Office

20 94 USOPM, 1999: 16 9, 10 Ornstein et. al., 1998: Linz Scott Mainwaring Matthew Shugart Presidentialism and Democracy in Latin America (1997) Linz Mainwaring Shugart and Shugart, 1997: Mainwaring and Shugart, 1994: Robert L. Maddex, Constitutions of the World, (Washington, D.C.: Congressional Quarterly, 1995).

21 Mainwaring Shugart Mainwaring and Shugart, 1997: 398 Rau l Alfonsin and Shugart, 1997: 2 Mainwaring Shugart Mainwaring and Shugart, 1994: Mainwaring Shugart

22 96 Shugart and Carey, 1992: chap Massicotte and Blais, 1999 Duverger, 1964 and

24 98 16 Linz, 1997: Lijphart Lijphart, 1984: government 16 Pierre Delvolvé 17 18

25 Maddex, Maddex, American University David Rosenbloom ( ) Juan Linz Bruce Ackerman The New Separation of Powers constrained parliamentarianism Ackerman, 2000:

26 100 Ackerman, Bruce, The New Separation of Powers, Harvard Law Review, 113(3), pp Archer, Ronald P. and Matthew Soberg Shugart, The Unrealized Potential of Presidential Dominance in Colombia, in Scott Mainwaring and Matthew Soberg Shugart, eds., Presidentialism and Democracy in Latin America, New York, NY: Cambridge University Press, pp Blackburn, Robert and Raymond Plant, eds Constitutional Reform: The Labour Government s Constitutional Reform Agenda, New York, NY: Longman. Blais, André, Louis Massicotte and Agnieszka Dobrzynska, Direct Presidential Elections: A World Summary, Electoral Studies, 16(4), pp Blondel, Jean and Ferdinand Múller-Rommel, Cabinets in Western Europe, 2nd ed., New York, NY: St. Martin s Press. Blondel, Jean and Waldino Suárez, Las Limitaciones Institucionales del Sistema

27 Presidencialista, Criteria (February 26), pp Coleman, Stephen, John Taylor and Wim van de Donk, eds., Parliament in the Age of the Internet, New York, NY: Oxford University Press. Derbyshire, J. Denis and Ian Derbyshire, Political Systems of the World, Edinburgh, UK: Chambers. Duverger, Maurice, Political Parties: Their Organization and Activity in the Modern State, 3rd ed., London: Methuen. Eskridge, Jr. William N. and Sanford Levinson, eds., Constitutional Stupidities, Constitutional Tragedies, New York, NY: New York University Press. Farazmand, Ali, ed., Modern Systems of Government: Exploring the Role of Bureaucrats and Politicians, Thousand Oaks, CA: SAGE Publications. Gamarra, Eduardo A., Hybrid Presidentialism and Democratization: The Case of Bolivia, in Scott Mainwaring, and Matthew Soberg Shugart, eds., Presidentialism and Democracy in Latin America, New York, NY: Cambridge University Press, pp Lane, Jan-Erik and Svante Ersson, The New Institutional Politics: Performance and Outcomes, New York, NY: Routledge. Lijphart, Arend, Democracies: Patterns of Majoritarian and Consensus Government in Twenty-One Countries, New Haven, CT: Yale University Press. Lijphart, Arend, Presidentialism and Majoritarian Democracy: Theoretical Observations, in Juan J. Linz and Arturo Valenzuela, eds., The Failure of Presidential Democracy, Baltimore, MD: The Johns Hopkins University Press, pp Linz, Juan J., Presidential or Parliamentary Democracy: Does It Make a Difference? in Juan J. Linz and Arturo Valenzuela, eds., The Failure of Presidential Democracy, Baltimore, MD: The Johns Hopkins University Press, pp Linz, Juan J., Introduction: Some Thoughts on Presidentialism in Postcommunist Europe, in Ray Taras, ed., Postcommunist Presidencies, New York, NY: Cambridge University Press, pp Linz, Juan J. and Arturo Valenzuela, eds., The Failure of Presidential Democracy, Baltimore, MD: The Johns Hopkins University Press. Lowenstein, Karl, The Presidency Outside the United States: A Study in Comparative Political Institutions, Journal of Politics, 11(3), pp Maddex, Robert L., Constitutions of the World, Washington, D.C.: Congressional Quarterly Inc. Mainwaring, Scott and Matthew Soberg Shugart, eds., Presidentialism and

28 102 Democracy in Latin America, Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press. Mainwaring, Scott and Matthew Soberg Shugart, Presidentialism and Democracy in Latin America: Rethinking the Terms of the Debate, in Scott Mainwaring and Matthew Soberg Shugart, eds., Presidentialism and Democracy in Latin America, New York, NY: Cambridge University Press, pp Mainwaring, Scott, Politicians, Parties, and Electoral Systems: Brazil in Comparative Perspective, Comparative Politics, 24(1), pp Massicotte, Louis, and André Blais, Mixed Electoral Systems: A Conceptual and Empirical Survey, Electoral Studies, 18, pp Mény, Yves and Andrew Knapp, Government and Politics in Western Europe: Britain, France, Italy, Germany, 3rd ed., New York, NY: Oxford University Press. Mettenheim, Kurt von and Bert A. Rockman, Presidential Institutions, Democracy, and Comparative Politics, in Kurt von Mettenheim, ed., Presidential Institutions and Democratic Politics: Comparing Regional and National Contexts, Baltimore, MD: The Johns Hopkins University Press, pp O Connor, Karen and Larry J. Sabato, American Government: Continuity and Change, New York, NY: Longman. Ornstein, Norman J., Thomas E. Mann and Michael J. Malbin, Vital Statistics on Congress: , Washington, D.C.: Congressional Quarterly Inc. Peters, B. Guy, The Separation of Powers in Parliamentary Systems, in Kurt von Mettenheim, ed., Presidential Institutions and Democratic Politics: Comparing Regional and National Contexts, Baltimore, MD: The Johns Hopkins University Press, pp Riggs, Fred W., The Survival of Presidentialism in America, International Political Science Review, 9(4), pp Riggs, Fred W., Public Administration: A Comparativist Framework, Public Administration Review, 51(6), pp Riggs, Fred W., Bureaucracy and the Constitution, Public Administration Review, 54(1), pp Riggs, Fred W., Presidentialism versus Parliamentarism: Implications for Representativeness and Legitimacy, International Political Science Review, 18(3), pp Rockman, Bert A., The Performance of Presidents and Prime Ministers and of Presidential and Parliamentary Systems, in Kurt von Mettenheim, ed., Presidential Institutions and Democratic Politics: Comparing Regional and National Contexts, Baltimore, MD: The Johns Hopkins University Press, pp Rosenbloom, David H., Public Administrative Theory and the Separation of

29 Powers, Public Administration Review, 43(3), pp Rosenbloom, David H. and Segal, Zeev, Presidential Political Systems and Contemporary Administrative Reform: Israel s Semi-Presidentialism as a Natural Experiment, International Journal of Organizational Theory & Behavior, 1(4), pp Ruffing-Hilliard, Karen, Merit Reform in Latin America, in Ali Farazmand, ed., Handbook of Comparative and Development Public Administration, pp Shugart, Matthew Soberg, and Carey, John M., Presidents and Assemblies: Constitutional Design and Electoral Dynamics, New York, NY: Cambridge University Press. Stepan, Alfred, and Skach, Cindy, Constitutional Frameworks and Democratic Consolidation: Parliamentarianism versus Presidentialism, World Politics, 46, pp Suárez, Waldino, El Poder Ejecutivo en América Latina: Su Capacidad Operativa Bajo Regímenes Presidencialistas de Gobierno, Revista de Estudios Políticos, 29, pp Turner, Barry, ed., The Statesman s Yearbook: The Politics, Cultures, and Economies of the World, New York, NY: St. Martin s Press. United States Office of Personnel Management, Federal Civilian Workforce Statistics: Employment and Trends as of January 1999, Washington, D.C.: USOPM. von, Kurt Mettenheim, ed., Presidential Institutions and Democratic Politics: Comparing Regional and National Contexts, Baltimore, MD: The Johns Hopkins University Press. Weaver, R. Kent and Bert A., eds., Rockman, eds. Do Institutions Matter?: Government Capabilities in the United States and Abroad, Washington, D.C.: The Brookings Institution.

30 104 Kennedy Johnson Ford Carter Carter Reagan Eisenhower Nixon Reagan Bush (N=13) 73.3 (N=6) 62.1 (N=29) Clinton Congressional Quarterly Weekly Report (December 11, 1999), p

31 Is Presidential System a Good Institution? Thomas Ching-Peng Peng Abstract A country s constitutional framework preconditions the capability of its government. It also influences the interaction among parties, electoral systems, and politicians. Empirical evidence demonstrates that the U.S. is the only presidential country that has maintained a continuous democracy for the past two centuries. Juan Linz identifies two characteristics of presidentialism as the causes of the failure of presidential systems: dual democratic legitimacy and rigidity. This paper expands Linz s observation to explain the institutional flaws of presidentialism: dual elections, fixed terms for the president and congress, and dual representation of the president. A variety of institutional impacts of presidentialism are discussed. In addition, the reasons why the U.S. presidential system is successful and those of Latin American countries are not are explored. Finally, the paper casts doubt on the idea that presidential system should be considered a preferable alternative for future constitutional reform in Taiwan. Keywords: constitution, presidentialism, presidential systems, parliamentary (systems).

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中國的科學與中國的公民：大陸研究在台灣的困境\\

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