在中国各气候区 建被动房 Passive House Institute Dr. Wolfgang Feist Rheinstr. 44-46 64283 Darmstadt Germany www.passivehouse.com Passive House Institute Passive Houses in Chinese Climates Passive Houses in Chinese Climates www.passivehouse.com
Passive Houses in Chinese Climates April 2016 Publisher: Wolfgang Feist, Passive House Institute and University of Innsbruck, Unit for Energy Efficient Buildings Authors: Jürgen Schnieders Tanja Schulz Wolfgang Feist Berthold Kaufmann Sichen Sheng Huijun Jiang Susanne Winkel Evelina Buteikyte Camille Sifferlen Passivhaus Institut Rheinstr. 44/46 64283 Darmstadt www.passivehouse.com The present report extends previous work by the Passive House Institute, in particular [Feist 2011], [Feist 2013], and [Feist 2015] (cf. list of references). The authors wish to thank Schöberl & Pöll GmbH, Vienna, the German Federal Environmental Foundation, Saint-Gobain Isover G+H AG, and Saint Gobain CRIR for their support.
Table of contents 1 概要... 7 2 Executive Summary... 9 3 Introduction... 11 3.1 The Passive House principle... 11 3.2 Passive Houses for China... 11 3.3 What to expect from this report... 12 4 Choosing Locations... 13 4.1 01 - Beijing The Capital... 13 4.2 02 - Shanghai The Industrial East Coast... 13 4.3 03 - Chengdu The Westernmost of the Great Cities... 13 4.4 04 - Kunming City of Eternal Spring... 14 4.5 05 - Guangzhou The Industrial South Coast... 14 4.6 06 - Qionghai Tropical... 14 4.7 07 - Harbin Cold with Humid Summers... 14 4.8 08 - Urumqi Cold with Dry Summers... 14 4.9 09 - Lhasa A Sunny Mountain Site... 14 5 Some General Design Recommendations... 15 5.1 Passive House basics... 15 5.2 Cost-efficient Passive Houses... 16 6 A Passive House for Every Chinese Climate... 18 6.1 Calculation tools... 18 6.2 Description of the Reference Passive Houses... 19 6.3 Climate Data... 23 6.4 Comfort Requirements... 23 6.5 General Findings for All Climates... 23 6.5.1 Overview: Components and building parameters... 24 6.5.2 Balconies... 25 6.5.3 Ventilation... 25 6.5.4 Distribution of Heating and Cooling... 26 6.5.5 Kitchen, Ventilation of Kitchens and Internal Heat Loads... 33 6.6 A Reference Passive House in 01 - Beijing: Cold... 40 6.6.1 Characterizing the climate... 40 6.6.2 Reference Passive House... 40 6.6.3 Results... 42 6.7 A Reference Passive House in 02 - Shanghai: Hot Summer Cold Winter... 46 6.7.1 Characterizing the climate... 46 6.7.2 Reference Passive House... 46 6.7.3 Results... 48 6.8 A Reference Passive House in 03 - Chengdu: Hot Summer Cold Winter... 52 6.8.1 Characterizing the climate... 52 6.8.2 Reference Passive House... 52 6.8.3 Results... 54 6.9 A Reference Passive House in 04 - Kunming: Temperate... 58 6.9.1 Characterizing the climate... 58 6.9.2 Reference Passive House... 58 6.9.3 Results... 60 6.10 A Reference Passive House in 05 - Guangzhou: Hot Summer Warm Winter... 64
6.10.1 Characterizing the climate... 64 6.10.2 Reference Passive House... 64 6.10.3 Results... 66 6.11 A Reference Passive House in 06 - Qionghai: Hot Summer Warm Winter... 72 6.11.1 Characterizing the climate... 72 6.11.2 Reference Passive House... 72 6.11.3 Results... 74 6.12 A Reference Passive House in 07 - Harbin: Severe Cold... 78 6.12.1 Characterizing the climate... 78 6.12.2 Reference Passive House... 78 6.12.3 Results... 80 6.13 A Reference Passive House in 08 - Urumqi: Severe Cold... 84 6.13.1 Characterizing the climate... 84 6.13.2 Reference Passive House... 84 6.13.3 Results... 86 6.14 A Reference Passive House in 09 - Lhasa: Cold... 88 6.14.1 Characterizing the climate... 88 6.14.2 Reference Passive House... 88 6.14.3 Results... 90 6.15 A Comparison of Results from Dynamic Simulation and PHPP Calculations... 92 7 Hygrothermal Considerations... 94 7.1 Cold Climates... 94 7.1.1 Examined wall composition... 94 7.1.2 Results of the hygrothermal analysis and recommendations... 95 7.2 Climates with Hot Summers and Cold Winters... 96 7.2.1 Examined wall composition... 96 7.2.2 Results of the hygrothermal analysis and recommendations... 96 7.3 Tropical Climates... 98 7.3.1 Examined wall composition... 98 7.3.2 Results of the hygrothermal analysis and recommendations... 98 7.4 Overview of results and recommendations... 101 8 Passive House Components for the Chinese market... 102 8.1 Walls, Roofs, Slabs... 102 8.2 Windows... 102 8.3 Ventilation Units... 103 8.4 Integrated Air Conditioning Systems... 104 9 References... 106 Appendix A Documentation of the Example Building... 109 A.1 General description... 109 A.2 Building components... 109 A.2.1 Opaque envelope... 110 A.2.2 Interior building components... 111 A.2.4 Windows... 112 A.3 Ventilation... 112 A.4 Air conditioning... 113 A.4.1 Air conditioning via supply air... 113 A.4.2 Air conditioning via a central split unit... 113 A.4.3 Ideal air conditioning... 113 A.5 Internal heat and moisture loads... 114 A.6 Shading... 114
Abbreviations ACH DH DHW ERV HP HRV MVHR n 50 PHPP SDHW SHR Air Changes per Hour Dehumidification Domestic Hot Water Energy Recovery Ventilator. A mechanical ventilation system where heat and humidity are transferred between the exhaust and outdoor air streams Heat Pump Heat Recovery Ventilator. A mechanical ventilation system where heat (but no humidity) is transferred between the exhaust and outdoor air streams Mechanical Ventilation with Heat Recovery Air change rate at a pressure difference of 50 Pa between interior and exterior, as measured in a pressurization test by a blower door Passive House Planning Package. An Excel-based design tool for Passive Houses, including tools for heating, cooling, dehumidification, DHW, electricity, and mechanical services Solar Domestic Hot Water, i.e. hot water is (partly) provided by a solar thermal collector Sensible Heat Ratio, the ratio of the sensible cooling capacity to the total (i.e. sensible plus latent) capacity. The SHR can either refer to the building, when it signifies the requirements, or to the equipment, when it refers to its capabilities. Ratio of total enthalpy change h to dehumidification x of an air mass. is given in kj/kg. Like the SHR, is a metric for the ratio of sensible and latent cooling.
Section 1: 概要 1 概要 被动房以极低的能源消耗和价格实惠的成本提供最佳可能的舒适室内环境 她们是解决建筑领域中气候保护任务的关键 这也使得她们特别适用于拥有庞大人口基数和经济快速发展的中国 目前在中国只有个别被动房实例 这篇研究报告则给中国所有气候区提供系统的被动房设计基础 结果显示, 被动房可以建造于中国的任何地方 基于一个十层楼的住宅高楼, 分别从九个地点进行被动房原理的进一步细化, 这九个地点覆盖中国的所有气候区 与按现行标准建造的常规新建建筑相比, 所得的参考被动房节省 80%-90% 的采暖能源和约 50% 的制冷和除湿能源 合适的窗户质量 保温水平 暖通设备和建筑组件结构类型取决于气候和建筑布局 不过在所有的情况中, 用的都是相同的原理, 所得的结果都是按国际标准认同定义的被动房 在寒冷和严寒气候区, 最重要的特征就是建筑要拥有极好的保温性能 传热系数 U- 值约为 0.1 W/(m²K), 非常好的气密性, 三玻 ( 甚至四玻或者真空 ) 低辐射玻璃, 以及高效能通风热回收是必要的 紧凑的热工围护结构和南向窗户能带来更多好处 为了提高冬季室内空气相对湿度, 可以使用带能量回收装置 (ERV, 即热湿回收系统 ) 的通风设备 在这些气候带中为了保持持久耐用和干燥的建筑结构, 最重要的一点是敷设隔汽层 - 可以就是气密层 在墙或者屋顶结构的内侧, 而在外侧则要考虑透气性 外表面同时应该保护结构使其免受雨水的侵入, 例如使用不吸收雨水的涂料 保温层应该敷设在外侧以保持结构温暖和干燥 采暖可以通过多种不同方式实现 传统的系统例如散热器或者地板采暖依然适用, 但是他们所需的设计负荷相比之下就要小得多 也可以通过加热通风系统为了提供良好室内空气质量而输送的 送风简简单单地实现被动房的采暖, 有可能需要通过小量的循环空气进行补充 即使是在中国相对寒冷的气候区, 夏季的天气也有持续数周之长会变得炎热 高温可能会伴随着高湿度, 尤其是在东部区域 在气候区, 例如像北京, 为了高舒适的夏季室内环境, 即使是在被动房中, 也需要主动制冷和除湿 在重要经济区夏热冬冷区, 采暖和主动制冷都需要 在冬季和夏季需要良好的保温, 但是相比于寒冷的气候区其保温程度相对较弱一些 夏季室外的高湿度使得峰值制冷条件下夜间通风被动制冷无法实现 除湿所需能源可以通过使用合理可控的能量回收通风系统而显著减少 被动式太阳能可以利用于冬季但在夏季需要有效的活动遮阳避免 通过送风, 有可能需要 100%-200% 的循环风进行补充, 来实现空调调节在这些区域尤其具有优势, 因为仅需要一个系统就能同时实现采暖 制冷和除湿 另外, 对于低温送风, 必须要考虑到一些关于风管道和送风末端的技术细节 此外还有一种价格低廉并且方便可得的替代方案, 即在每套住宅的中央房间安装单个传统的小型分体式空调机组 这种方案要求室内门在一天当中敞开一段时间 这样的话, 产生的热舒适性比送风制冷就只是稍微差一点 在潮湿的夏季, 需要特别注意除湿是否足够 ; 为了获得最佳的舒适度和节能, 湿度应该和温度分开控制 在这些气候区, 建筑外部结构组件实现彻底湿平衡是尤具挑战性的, 因为湿传递方向在整年中一直在改变 建筑外墙和屋面的结构就需要特别慎重地考虑 用 EPS 作为外保温时, 通常不会有问题 但对于用矿物棉作为保温的结构, 外部抹灰的特性十分重要, 例如很低的水蒸气扩散阻力和很低的吸水性 对于受热带气候影响的夏热冬暖区, 对阳光的控制是最重要的因素 窗户应该通过固定遮阳装置以避免太阳直射和拥有高选择性遮阳玻璃 - 不过活动遮阳也是可以使用的 墙和屋顶可以通过保 - 7 -
Section 1: 概要 温层免受太阳负荷 ; 或者使用冷色尤其对于屋顶也是有效的方法 除湿需求甚至可以比显热制冷需求还高 气密的围护结构保护着建筑内部免受室外高湿度的影响 同时需要通过通风系统中的能量回收装置得以保障 在这一类型的气候区中, 耐久干燥的墙和屋顶结构需要吸水率特别低但透气的外表面 大部分的结构类型在这个前提下都能运行得很好 ; 采用透湿材料的外保温, 例如矿物棉, 湿度方面则需要特别注意 在温暖气候区的制冷设备使用和夏热冬冷地区相同的原理 在中国南方温和的山地气候区, 阳光充足和气候温和, 这让众多不同的被动房设计方案可以使用 在这个气候区, 甚至可以建造既不需机械通风也不需三玻玻璃的被动房 通过研究结果也证实了, 被动房规划设计软件包 (PHPP) 是适用于所有中国气候区的设计软件 如果 PHPP 计算从设计一开始就融为设计过程的一部分, 那么可以实现集舒适 节能和经济为一体的被动房 对应于被动房提供的高效节能, 组件也是更优越的, 如今还没有大规模产品范围 本研究报告包含了关于如何通过合适的新型组件改善能效和建造成本的建议 - 8 -
Section 2: Executive Summary 2 Executive Summary Passive Houses provide the best possible indoor climate with a very low energy consumption at affordable cost. They are the key to solving the task of climate protection in the field of buildings. This makes them particularly suited to China with its huge population and its strong economic growth. Currently there are only individual examples for Passive Houses in China. The present study systematically provides the basis for Passive House design in all Chinese climate zones. It shows that Passive Houses can be built everywhere in China. Starting from the geometry of a ten-storey residential high-rise, Passive House principles are developed for nine locations, covering all Chinese climate zones. Compared to conventional new buildings built according to the current code requirements, the resulting reference Passive Houses save 80 to 90% of heating energy and approximately 50% of energy for cooling and dehumidification. Appropriate window qualities, insulation levels, mechanical services, and building element construction types depend on the climate and the building layout. In all cases, however, the same principles are applied, and in all cases the result is a Passive House according to the internationally valid definition. The most important feature in the Cold and Very Cold climate zones is excellent thermal protection. U-values around 0.1 W/(m²K), very good airtightness, triple (or even quadruple or vacuum) low-e glazing, and a highly efficient ventilation heat recovery are essential. A compact thermal envelope and south oriented windows are advantageous. To increase the indoor relative humidity in winter, energy recovery ventilators (ERV, i.e. systems that recover heat and humidity) can be used. For durable, dry construction types in these climates the most important point is to install a vapour retarder which may be identical with the airtight layer on the interior side of the wall or roof construction, whereas the exterior side allows for vapour diffusion. The exterior surface should simultaneously protect the construction from driving rain, e.g. by a paint that does not absorb rainwater. The insulation should be placed on the exterior in order to keep the construction warm and dry. Heating can be provided in many different ways. Conventional systems such as radiators or floor heating are still suitable, but they require much smaller design loads. It is also possible to heat Passive Houses simply by heating the supply air that the ventilation system provides for good indoor air quality, possibly supplemented by a small amount of recirculated air. Even in the colder climates of China the weather may become uncomfortably warm during some weeks in summer. High temperatures may be accompanied, particularly in the eastern parts of the country, by high humidity. In climates like Beijing active cooling and dehumidification are required for high summer comfort, even in a Passive House. In the economically important Hot Summer Cold Winter region both heating and active cooling will be needed. Good thermal protection is necessary for winter and summer, but to a lesser extent than in the cold climates. The high outdoor humidity in summer rules out concepts with night ventilation under peak cooling conditions. The energy required for dehumidification can be reduced considerably by means of a properly controlled ERV. Passive solar energy can be used in winter but requires effective, movable blinds in summer. Space conditioning via the supply air, possibly supplemented by 100 to 200 % recirculated air, is particularly attractive in these regions because it can provide heating, cooling, and dehumidification with one system. Some technical details concerning ducts and vents for the cold supply air must be considered here. An alternative, very cheap and easily available - 9 -
Section 2: Executive Summary solution is a single conventional minisplit per dwelling unit that is placed in a central room. This strategy requires interior doors to be kept open during a part of the day. Then, the resulting thermal comfort is only slightly worse than with supply air cooling. Sufficient dehumidification in the humid summers deserves special attention; for optimum comfort and energy efficiency the humidity should be controlled separately from the temperature. Providing a sound moisture balance of the exterior building elements is particularly challenging in these climates because the direction of moisture transfer changes during the course of the year. The construction of the walls and roof needs careful consideration. Exterior insulation with EPS is usually not critical. For constructions with an insulation made from mineral wool the properties of the exterior plaster, e.g. a low resistance to vapour diffusion and a low water absorption, are important. For the tropically influenced climates of the Hot Summer Warm Winter region solar control is the most important factor. Windows should be protected from direct solar radiation by fixed shading devices and have highly selective solar protective glazings but movable solar protection is also possible. Walls and roofs can be protected from solar loads by insulation; cool colours are an interesting alternative particularly in the roof. Cooling devices in the warm climates use the same principles as in the Hot Summer Cold Winter region. The Temperate mountain climates in the south of China, with their sunny and mild conditions, allow for many different Passive House solutions. Here, it is even possible to build Passive Houses with neither mechanical ventilation nor triple glazing. The report confirms that the Passive House Planning Package (PHPP) is an appropriate design tool in all Chinese climates. If a PHPP calculation is an integral part of the design process from the start, it is possible to realize Passive Houses that are comfortable, energy-efficient, and economical. For the high level of efficiency that Passive Houses provide, components are preferable that are not available in a large range of products today. The present report contains suggestions on how efficiency and building cost can be improved by suitable new components. The dehumidification demand can be even higher than the sensible cooling demand. An airtight envelope protects the building s interior from high outdoor humidity. It is supported by an ERV in the ventilation system. Long-lasting, dry wall and roof constructions in this type of climate require particularly low water absorption coefficients of the exterior surfaces without compromising their vapour diffusion. Most construction types work well under this precondition; exterior insulation with vapourpermeable materials like mineral wool requires special attention to humidity. - 10 -
Section 3: Introduction 3 Introduction 3.1 The Passive House principle Developed in the early 1990s in Germany, the Passive House concept has successfully spread across Europe and beyond. Its goal is to provide the best possible indoor climate with a very low energy consumption at affordable cost. Towards this goal, the concept makes use of various strategies to minimize the energy flows at and within the building. The focus is on passive methods, such as insulation, highquality windows, airtightness, solar control, and the avoidance of thermal bridges; the name "Passive House" emphasizes the goal of optimally combining these aspects. Depending on the local climate, additional technical equipment with low energy consumption is used. In most cases, a ventilation system with heat and/or humidity recovery is needed; in addition, most locations will require systems for heating, cooling and/or dehumidification. The required capacities are usually very low, so that innovative, low-cost concepts are possible; for instance, rooms can be heated/cooled simply by treating the supply airflow volume already required for good indoor air quality. Figure 1 shows the first Passive House, which was built in Darmstadt-Kranichstein as the result of a research project. The following energy consumption figures were measured, at levels of great user satisfaction ([Feist 1994]): Space heating demand: 11.9 kwh/(m²a) Hot water: 6.1 kwh/(m²a) Gas for cooking: 2.6 kwh/(m²a) Total power consumption, including all household applications: 11.2 kwh/(m²a) Mind that, throughout the present report, all specific values refer to the living area, i.e. the sum of the net floor area of all rooms within the thermal envelope without the surfaces covered by internal and external walls or staircases. Referring the energy demand to the gross floor area would result in considerably smaller figures. Figure 1: The first Passive House, which was constructed in 1991 in Darmstadt- Kranichstein. Photo from February 2005 On the average, the levels of energy consumption measured in Passive Houses are close to the values forecast by the Passive House Planning Package [PHPP]. Today, Passive House criteria are available for all climates of the world. For certification by the Passive House Institute, buildings must achieve certain maximum values for annual heating and cooling demands, peak heating and cooling loads, airtightness, and total primary energy consumption including auxiliary and household electricity. Some Passive House criteria depend on the climatic conditions and the building use. Details about certification can be found on www.passivehouse.com. 3.2 Passive Houses for China China is building more new dwellings than any other country in the world. During the next 10 years, Chinese cities are expected to provide living space for nearly 200 million people. This huge amount of new buildings can contribute to energy-efficiency, economic use of resources, and to the inevitable global environmental protection goals provided that these buildings impose no additional burden on the world s climate. - 11 -
Section 3: Introduction Globally, the Passive House is the highest standard for energy efficient construction. As of 2020, the European Union requires all new buildings in Europe to be Nearly Zero Energy Buildings (NZEBs), i.e. on the level of Passive Houses. The most important reason for this requirement is that Passive Houses can be run totally on renewable energy without great effort. Compared to standard construction practice in China, Passive Houses can save 80 to 90% of heating energy and approximately 50% of energy for cooling and dehumidification. And they provide many additional advantages: extremely low energy cost extremely low running cost extremely low maintenance cost continuous supply of fresh air and, thereby, good indoor air quality (filters are implemented in the ventilation system) very low indoor CO 2 concentrations the use of filters against pollution, dust, pollen, etc. controlled temperature and humidity in winter and summer good sound protection dry interior surfaces, protection against mould growth 3.3 What to expect from this report parallel, an energy balance in the PHPP is assembled. Thereby, a typical configuration of building elements and components for a Passive House highrise in every climate zone in China became available. The present report thereby shows that Passive Houses can in fact be realized in all Chinese climates how this goal can be reached, so that the advantages of Passive Houses become accessible to everybody that the PHPP is suitable for Passive House design in all climates The worked examples can be used as a starting point for the development of a Passive House in a particular climate. It should be noted that there is no fixed set of Passive House parameters. Rather, each building is different and needs an individual planning as well as an individual optimization of its properties that s what the PHPP was made for. Nevertheless, with typical parameter sets once determined, manufacturers receive a clear goal for developing and providing components with improved efficiency, suitable for Passive Houses in the respective region. First steps in this direction have already been taken in China. In the present report nine typical locations in the different climate zones of China are selected: From very cold climates via the important Hot Summer Cold Winter region to the hot and humid climates of the south coast, including very special mild and high altitude climates. A prototype that is typical for a high-rise residential building is developed (cf. Figure 5 and Figure 6 on page 20), illustrating the design parameters that allow for easy and cost-efficient Passive House design. By means of dynamic thermal simulations an exemplary Passive House configuration is developed; in - 12 -
Section 4: Choosing Locations 4 Choosing Locations China has 5 major climate zones, shown in Figure 2. The majority of the land surface is in cold or very cold regions, where the lowest monthly average temperature is below 0 C. Important parts of the country have hot (and humid) summers, but still require heating in winter. In the south, tropical influences can be found. or extreme temperatures. Taking into consideration the population density and the intensity of building activities, the locations shown in Figure 3 were chosen as reference locations for this report. The main features of these locations are summarized in the following sections. Diagrams that further illustrate the properties of the climates can be found in sections 6.6 through 6.14. Figure 2: There are five major climate zones in China. Source of map: [GBPN 2012] Figure 3: Locations used in this study 4.1 01 - Beijing The Capital It is worth noting that the climate zones from Figure 2 show good agreement with a worldwide characterisation of climates developed independently at the Passive House Institute. The assignment is as follows: Chinese climate zone Severe Cold Cold Hot Summer Cold Winter Temperate Hot Summer Warm Winter PHI climate zone cold cool, temperate warm, temperate warm hot In some climate zones it is of interest to investigate more than one location because of minor climatic features like dry or humid summers, high altitudes The capital of China, located at a latitude of 40 north, has cold, dry winters and warm, humid summers. Therefore, both heating and cooling are required. 4.2 02 - Shanghai The Industrial East Coast Shanghai is situated on the economically powerful east coast. Heating is still relevant, but the warm and humid summer conditions also pose an important challenge. 4.3 03 - Chengdu The Westernmost of the Great Cities Chengdu is situated at 500 m above sea level, at the western end of the strongly industrialized region in - 13 -
Section 4: Choosing Locations eastern China. The climate is similar to 02 - Shanghai. 4.4 04 - Kunming City of Eternal Spring Kunming has a very mild climate. The monthly average temperatures vary only between 9 and 20 C. At 25 north and nearly 2000 m altitude, there is abundant solar radiation all year round. summer. In the semi-arid climate humidity in summer is not a concern. 4.9 09 - Lhasa A Sunny Mountain Site Lhasa is situated at an altitude of 3600 m and at a latitude of 30 north. In winter, monthly average temperatures below 0 C combine with high levels of solar radiation. Summers are mild and dry. 4.5 05 - Guangzhou The Industrial South Coast Guangzhou is the capital of the Guangdong Province, the third largest Chinese city, and representative for the Pearl River Delta. It has a tropical climate with hot and humid summers, but there is a mild, dry winter season. Cooling and dehumidification are dominant. 4.6 06 - Qionghai Tropical Qionghai, situated on the island of Hainan in the southernmost part of China. Summers are comparable to 05 - Guangzhou, winters are warmer and more humid. Again, the climate is cooling dominated and requires a lot of dehumidification. 4.7 07 - Harbin Cold with Humid Summers Harbin is located in the Severe Cold climate zone. Monthly average temperatures are below -10 C for several months per year. Due to the influence of the sea, the summer season gets rather humid. 4.8 08 - Urumqi Cold with Dry Summers Urumqi has a continental climate. Winters are similarly cold as in 07 - Harbin, whereas monthly average temperatures rise above 20 C during the whole - 14 -
Passive House Institute Dr. Wolfgang Feist Rheinstr. 44-46 64283 Darmstadt Germany www.passivehouse.com Passive House Institute Passive Houses in Chinese Climates 被动房 在中国气候带 www.passivehouse.com