SOCIOLOGY OF ETHNICITY 47 2008 4 20 21 Nathan Glazer Association of Sociology of Ethnicity Sociology Society of China Institute of Sociology and Anthropology Peking University
1 Randall Hansen and Patrick Weil, editors, Dual Nationality, Social Rights and Federal Citizenship in the U. S. and Europe, New York: Berghahn Books, 2002; Thomas Faist, ed., Dual Citizenship in Europe. 1
1 Irene Bloemraad, Much Ado about Nothing? The Contours of Dual Citizenship in the United States and Canada, forthcoming in Thomas Faist, ed., Dual Citizenship: Democracy, Rights and Identities Beyond Borders. 2, Peter J. Spiro, Dual Nationality and the Meaning of Citizenship, Emory Law Journal, 46:4, Fall 1997, 1411-1485. 2
1 H. Ansgar Kelly, Dual Nationality, the Myth of Election, and a Kinder, Gentler State Department, University of Miami Inter-American Law Review1991-2, 23:2, pp. 421-64, as cited in Bloemraad, see footnote 2. 3
1 Dual Citizenship and American National Identity, Center Paper 10, Washington D. C., Center for Immigration Studies, 2001. 2 Washington, D. C. Georgetown University Press, 2005. Renshon Reforming Dual Citizenship in the United States: Integrating Immigrants into the American National Community, Center for immigration Studies Paper 25, Becoming American: The Hidden Core of the immigration debate, Center for Immigration Studies 2007. 3 Who Are We? The Challenges to America s National Identity, New York: Simon & Schuster, 2004. 4 Center for immigration Studies Backgrounder, 2005. 5 New York: Atlantic Monthly Press, 1996. 6 Alan Wall, Shouldn t this Dual Citizenship Thing be Straightened Out before We Allow Millions more Immigrants?, The Social Contract, Winter 2006-7, pp. 115-117 4
1 Irene Bloemraad, Who Claims Dual Citizenship? The Limits of Post-nationalism, the Possibilities of Transnationalism, and the Persistence of Traditional Citizenship, International Migration Review, 38:2, Summer 2004, 389-426. 2 Stpehen Castles, in Rainer Baubock and Joihn Rindell, eds., Blurred Boundaries: Migration, Ethnicity, and Citizenship, 3 David Jacobson, Rights Across Borders, Johns Hopkins University Press, 1996, p. 72. 4 Pierre Manent, A World beyond Politics? A Defense of the Nation-State, Princeton University Press, 2006, p. 42. 5
1 Noah Pickus, ed., Immigration and Citizenship in the Twenty-First Century, Lanham, MD: Rowman and Littlefield, 1998, p. 152. 2 Nathan Glazer, Dual Citizenship as a Challenge to Sovereignty, in John D. Montgomery and Nathan Glazer, eds., Sovereignty Under Challenge, New Brunswick, NJ: Transaction Publishers, 2002, p. 53. 3 Hansen and Weil, see footnote i. 6
7
1 David A. Hollinger, From Identity to Solidarity, Daedalus, Fall, 2006, pp.25-6. 8
1 James W. Caesar, in Claremont Review of Books, Summer, 2007, reviewing Pierre Manent, A World Beyond Politics: A Defense of the Nation-State, Princeton University Press, 2007. 2 David A, Martin, New Rules on Dual Nationality for a Democratizing Globe: Between Rejection and Embrace, Georgetown Immigration Law Journal, 14:1, Fall 1999, pp. 1-34. This interesting article by a former legal counsel of Immigration and Naturalization Service, records a change of mind, from opposition to acceptance, up to a point, of dual nationality. 9
1 2007 200811-13 2 5 60% 2000 2007 2007 8 3 1 2008 2 2-41 2-2003 3 10
7 1 166.49 8 5,600 2005 2,010.4 1,214.7 60.4% 923.5 45.9% 795.7 39.6% 141.4 7% 89.3 4.4% 17.2 17.1 4.4 4.1 2.5 1.5 1.1 6,484 4,717 11.4 200682-83 1 1 15 8 10% 12005 % () 194.1 13.0 73.7 2.8 8.6 0.1 0.4 25.5 15.3 75.2 4.1 2.4 0.0 0.9 64.2 1.0 94.8 0.5 2.5 0.0 0.1 58.4 70.2 23.1 0.0 2.7 0.0 0.0 54.0 18.2 69.0 8.9 2.9 0.0 0.4 157.9 4.0 74.4 8.3 11.7 0.0 0.4 259.6 23.7 40.2 20.4 10.0 0.6 1.2 96.7 4.0 58.3 24.8 7.1 0.2 3.4 1 2000 55,841 19,493 15,787 7,006 6,153 5,642 3,762 2,837 1,593 1,463 977 946 723 571 409 302 301 284 166 115 110 73 72 68 62 59 51 41 34 33 29 28 27 22 18 14 14 12 11 10 9 9 2 109 58200240-95 13 43 56 11
63.0 1.6 42.8 50.3 3.4 0.0 0.9 45.8 12.6 67.7 9.3 3.6 0.0 5.9 117.1 32.2 57.9 0.1 5.0 0.0 4.1 226.5 72.9 25.7 0.0 0.6 0.4 0.0 47.6 64.0 7.0 0.0 0.1 27.7 0.0 369.4 90.0 8.5 0.0 0.2 0.1 0.0 182.5 96.7 3.1 0.0 0.1 0.0 0.0 2,010.4 45.9 39.6 7.0 4.4 0.9 0.9 200682-83 12 136 / 2005 87 4 1 1 1990 1989 2.29 4.65 199339 1953 361 1982 596 2005 924 1 2000 1970-1990 1990 2007 17-21 22-26 5-10 12000 8 1 8000 10 1990 0.2-1.1%20006 12
1 7 5 1 2005 7,426 405.5 57.4% 261,696 15.8 56% 241,693 14,4967 59.9%1957 525 593 20065192005 5.9 2 2. 1980-2005 1980 3,767 236,972 73,959 14,688 792 10,531 422,089 90 1985 9,298 247,431 93,692 13,919 20,429 10,603 374,643 91 1990 8,034 213,074 84,567 15,586 27,968 15,420 335,552 103 1991 8,179 161,986 77,525 16,902 29,354 16,722 344,432 15 1992 10,985 208,186 61,673 20,611 27,041 17,194 359,302 119 1993 13,359 207,503 56,180 26,572 24,778 16,851 385,535 102 1994 12,099 214,685 44,552 29,248 21,350 16,325 400,700 102 1995 12,307 228,115 58,203 25,260 25,643 19,593 419,717 165 1996 12,421 239,948 59,400 26,311 23,003 18,110 428,651 67 1997 12,673 262,117 64,377 27,302 21,741 17,034 443,238 120 1998 12,880 293,932 71,302 27,497 19,862 13,807 429,247 130 1999 19,821 329,715 69,801 36,014 18,828 9,221 391,298 175 2000 30,689 342,046 76,744 38,866 20,027 9,080 364,193 177 2001 42,253 366,359 93,519 26,763 16,621 7,207 352,975 135 2002 42,808 388,558 113,366 22,241 16,746 10,442 346,386 874 2003 44,733 406,824 126,163 24,016 15,378 10,652 347,619 369 2004 53,204 398,090 138,315 27,990 27,585 14,686 347,364 390 2005 58,653 390,224 145,044 34,882 12,416 15,115 338,539 847 2006518 2005 2,017 1,667 81%2005 98.1% 40.7% 341.7% 1 960 198385 13
56.4%76.3% 1 31980-2005 % % % % % 1980 81.0 186,012 39.8 14.0 46.2 6.2 93.8 814 1985 85.6 199,206 47.0 22.6 30.4 13.7 86.3 3,511 1990 82.2 216,173 39.1 27.3 33.6 9.9 90.1 8,603 1991 88.3 195,249 39.7 32.3 28.0 10.3 89.7 7,919 1992 77.7 176,435 35.0 36.7 28.3 13.0 87.0 8,402 1993 80.0 182,827 30.7 37.3 32.0 17.0 83.0 7,741 1994 81.9 141,749 31.4 47.2 21.4 21.2 78.8 7,734 1995 84.1 171,167 34.0 41.2 24.8 27.6 72.4 10,505 1996 85.7 171,817 34.6 39.2 26.2 28.6 71.4 12,272 1997 89.0 190,321 33.8 34.7 31.5 33.4 66.6 10,908 1998 91.6 210,208 33.9 29.1 37.0 25.9 74.1 11,401 1999 92.2 230,083 30.3 27.8 41.9 37.8 62.2 11,886 2000 92.0 253,240 30.3 26.8 42.9 55.8 44.2 10,985 2001 92.7 270,550 34.6 18.7 46.7 71.3 28.7 16,121 2002 94.4 294,271 38.5 16.8 44.7 69.1 30.9 16,380 2003 96.5 308,445 40.9 16.2 42.9 63.2 36.8 25,785 2004 95.3 336,165 41.1 20.9 38.0 63.0 37.0 31,013 2005 98.1 356,359 40.7 17.5 41.8 56.4 43.6 37,920 2006 518-519 16-18 45-48%19-22 19.5% 3 1980 81% 2005 98.1% 3 1999 40% 1985 1998 20-30% 2000 2001 1978 40.2 1997 100 2005 504. 5 2002 32003 2002 1.57 2004 2003 1.2 2005 2004 1.22 2 40.7% 7-12 97.7% 13-15 80.3% 2005 72,876 13,642 18.7% 10.9% 4 2 1 2005 661.6 504.5 2006 800-801 2 14
42005 % % 23,767 23,634 99.4 22,946 18,769 81.1 3,660 4,707 128.6 3,758 2,970 79.0 2,053 2,739 133.4 1,956 2,671 136.6 9,848 9,313 94.6 11,373 4,147 36.5 6,233 6,487 104.1 7,094 4,925 69.4 18,771 20,101 107.1 21,001 13,705 65.3 39,847 37,589 94.3 34,382 17,933 52.2 14,868 14,631 98.4 14,859 9,043 60.9 9,512 9,144 96.1 11,353 4,935 43.5 5,756 5,601 97.3 5,810 3,695 63.3 16,686 16,478 98.8 17,035 9,639 56.6 49,841 50,401 101.1 45,098 10,013 22.2 10,914 10,298 94.4 12,200 3,843 31.5 94,326 86,785 92.0 72,876 13,642 18.7 42,323 43,112 101.9 30,886 3,366 10.9 49,187 49,204 100.0 43,732 21,748 49.7 397,592 390,224 98.1 356,359 145,044 40.7 () 2,019.5 1,976.5 97.9 2,106.5 877.7 41.7 2006529-530 4 1 92% 2 4 1 1.33 700 2 3 1.37 60.4% 5 2002 85.7% 1 35.1% 5 % 1998 1999 2000 2002 91.0 99.7 93.6 95.8 93.5 99.3 94.1 102.5 88.5 99.3 90.7 95.6 88.7 99.1 90.5 102.5 2.5 0.4 3.0 0.2 4.8 0.2 3.6 0.1 44.5 79.2 38.45 81.1 31.3 96.8 35.1 85.7 27.1 45.2 21.9 47.6 20.4 53.6 25.5 65.8 1 2 15
3.9 10.9 2.6 8.8 1.6 6.4 1.2 4.7 8.4 15.5 11.3 17.9 7.0 30.1 5.6 10.3 5.2 7.7 2.6 6.9 2.2 6.8 2.9 5.0 54.4 56.6 54.0 92.1 74.1 98.7 70.1 83.5 40.0 48.6 42.0 84.1 62.1 96.8 67.9 82.2 11.9 6.2 11.9 8.0 12.1 1.9 2.3 1.4 2.5 1.6 - - - - - - * 9.6 21.8 8.4 37.8 11.3 51.4 15.7 53.7 * 100%( 9798%) 2002 100 100% 0.06% 19981999 2000 2002 70.1% 83.5% 50-60% 205 1986 2006 119 1 2 3 1 60% 56 1 3 2 7 50 6 1998 3 4 1 2005 1,550 2004 12 5,451 1,436,257 64.8% 86,315 64% 1,467 742,084 41,823 498 148,398 9,293 7,416 2,326,739 62.3% 137,431 59.9% 660.4% 1 16
6 2004 12 977 17,767-9,612 2,178 262,624 77,811 % - - - 100.0 22.7 100.0 29.6 5451 150,308 86,315 134,915 86,315 2,218,109 1,436,257 % 100.0 57.4 100.0 64.0 100.0 64.8 * 1965 113,047 59,028 94,381 51,116 1,517,948 890,482 % - 100.0 52.2 100.0 54.2 100.0 58.7 84 4,732-3,079-61502 - % - - - - - - 8 356-257 - 2549 350 % - - - - - 100.0 13.7 * 1,158,801 64.0% 359,147 41.3% 7 1960 1981 165 1984 44 90 1 2000 461 2004 656 2005 707 6 7 2004 % % % % % % * - - 77,811 29.6 3,777 70.3 1226678 55.3 971 49.4 787689 51.9 - - - - 3,297 60.5 - - 726 36.9 - - - - - - 375 6.9 - - 189 9.6 - - - - - - 22 0.4 - - 23 1.2 - - - - - - 4 0.1 - - 4 0.2 - - - - - - 79 1.4 - - 29 1.5 - - - - - - 636 11.7 - - 20 1.0 - - - - - - 1,038 19.0 - - 974 49.6 - - 977-262,624 100.0 5,451 100.0 2218109 100.0 1965 100.0 1517948 100.0 * 1 2004 1 1971-1981 1981 2005 17
7 87.3% 74.8% 2 3 1 2 1 3 1 2 3 2 4 5 3 1 4-5 1977 1978 6 1980 7 1982 1984 1 9 1984 12 28 843 2005 2,830 74.9% 1,189,456 97% 135,584 1 2006 77 Sautman1999 184 2 2 10 2 3 10 4 18
98.6% 8 9 1 82002 30.8 54.4 24.5 34.4 34.1 34.4 57.3 59.1 58.8 66.8 68.0 56.8 I * 2.7 42.7 3.0 6.0 9.1 17.3 % 49.5 51.5 50.2 65.1 63.6 47.3 ** 0.04 1.7 0.13 0.26 1.4 2.9 % 2.2 1.7 13.8 18.7 31.6 14.3 17.3 29.6 7.6 12.6 12.9 13.7 II 22.6 36.6 23.8 25.2 24.4 23.7 *** 32.7 56.8 19.9 29.8 30.0 30.9 52.9 66.1 53.2 59.5 58.4 52.5 * I 100 II 70 50 ** 85 *** I II 13,126 43,419 92003-2005 % % % 98.7 68.5 58.4 64.4 44.7-2003 74.7 35.8 49.3 42.5 39.5 65.7 53.1 13.3 36.0 12.8 32.9 44.3 89.7 56.1 61.7 71.9 44.0 77.9 2004 40.3 4.6 39.1 20.1 33.3 45.6 66.7 26.9 53.2 52.1 39.6 67.9 2005 85.1-60.3-41.4-42.6-43.3-30.8-2 4 2003 2000 1 2003 2003 50% 2004 70% 2005 100% 2 1977 2 19
2 2005 4 1,271 100 7 4 22 23 4 2005 201.4 1,271 3 2002 18 1 3 1992 7 15 10 2 1996 26 1997 60 1999 1 3 5 28 2000 11 30 28 91 2004 4 4 2005 1 trilingualismwright2004248 2 1992 100 3 200225-30 4 2007 20
2004 943 20% 1 35,948 2.9% 1,847 1.3% 2005 8,487 5.1% 2005-2011 35 85,524 10 12.1% 2 10.9%18.7% 22.2% 4 10 2005 9 % % 1,045 30,269 11.5 1,414-2,074 60,886 2.8 3,098 3.6 1,140 43,521 5.9 2,849 6.8 246 10,462 6.9 1,126 12.1 3,460 114,869 4.9 7,073 5.1 * 4,505 145,138-8,487-2006524 2005 9 4,505 145,138 10 2004 35,948 4 5,000 15 6.6%2008 1 18 4 1 1.5 330 / 20 /2 400-600 / 800 78 84 962 11,544 400 2007 8 1 2 5 51,116 7 3,975 7.8% 21
2006 8.1 1,296 2006 2005 2.7 29.4% 2012 85% 6 29% 85% 2007-2011 5 37,371 3,000 1848 / 13 2.25 10% 8,706 2007-2012 1 5 15 11 2 29 38 42.5 11 112005 10 0 0 119 3,650 50 2,142 12 641 181 6,433 0 0 18 443 2 91 3 116 23 650 4 71 26 386 6 163 3 95 39 715 22 706 38 1,338 62 2,290 19 873 141 5,207 0 0 15 536 26 974 10 350 51 1,860 46 499 194 4,488 127 2,472 21 753 388 8,212 314 10,096 451 13,422 134 5,236 63 2,733 962 31,487 26 180 83 1,924 39 1,297 21 649 169 4,050 31 801 109 2,319 95 3,107 11 455 246 6,682 52 1,162 146 1,910 38 868 3 106 239 4,046 107 1,886 90 1,836 46 1,793 15 702 258 6,217 176 6,265 376 12,312 59 2,817 18 745 629 22,139 0 0 7 306 14 529 2 135 23 970 129 4,008 338 13,136 194 8,670 31 1,409 692 27,223 138 4,595 64 2,880 248 11,072 14 700 464 19,247 1 4 2002 7,600 6,000 1,600 2 3 4 5 3 1 3 22
1,045 30,269 2074 60,886 1,140 43,521 246 10,462 4,505 145,138 2007 2% 6 2000 12 1977 1997 1977 25% 1997 50.8% 50% 2 1 12. (1977-1997) % % % % 1977 3916 100.0 2938 75.0 978 25.0 109577 3.6 1978 4930 100.0 3816 77.4 1114 22.6 66504 7.4 1979 4266 100.0 3224 75.6 1041 24.4 54728 7.7 1980 4807 100.0 3346 69.6 1461 30.4 60370 7.9 1981 4409 100.0 3063 69.5 1346 30.5 67114 6.6 1982 5568 100.0 3795 68.2 1771 31.8 69504 8.0 1983 7761 100.0 4967 64.0 2794 36.0 77621 10.0 1984 10273 100.0 5653 55.0 3887 45.0 77985 13.2 1985 12000 100.0 6741 56.2 5259 43.8 69673 17.2 1986 11785 100.0 6458 54.8 5327 45.2 58585 17.5 1987 12939 100.0 7281 56.3 5658 43.7 73947 17.5 1988 14690 100.0 9211 62.7 5479 37.3 85718 17.1 1989 13405 100.0 6903 51.5 6502 48.5 86499 15.5 1990 12965 100.0 6577 50.7 6388 49.3 81062 16.0 1991 12791 100.0 6480 50.7 6374 49.3 79000 16.2 1992 17069 100.0 9318 54.6 7751 45.4 84518 20.2 1993 20143 100.0 10475 52.0 9668 48.0 78675 25.6 1994 17839 100.0 9000 50.5 8839 49.5 60119 29.6 1995 17814 100.0 9200 51.6 8614 48.4 54561 32.6 1996 17737 100.0 9260 52.2 8477 47.8 55360 32.0 1997 19299 100.0 9496 49.2 9803 50.8 52381 36.8 : 1997: 595-596 1 23
1998-2000 19% 67.7% 13 3.5% 4.2% 3.5% 4.8% 5.0% 9.5% 13 % % % % %* 758792 81.4 114850 12.3 58580 6.3 932222 100.0 1611691 3.5 1998 250696 81.4 39840 12.9 17584 5.7 308120 100.0 479906 3.5 95904 91.0 5153 4.9 4290 4.1 105347 100.0 80809 5.0 764359 81.4 111406 11.9 63022 6.7 938787 100.0 1613756 3.8 1999 271129 80.6 42368 12.6 23010 6.8 336507 100.0 554363 4.0 99626 88.3 6247 5.5 6980 6.2 112853 100.0 81726 7.9 762927 81.3 105745 11.3 69864 7.4 938536 100.0 1589239 4.2 2000 301550 80.1 42027 11.3 29489 7.9 373066 100.0 584356 4.8 106796 88.5 5283 4.4 8614 7.1 120693 100.0 81644 9.5 * 2000 2000 7.9 1 2005 13.1 5 66% 2005 226.2 5.8% 75% 50% 70% 11% 30% 2004 25.6% 30% 2,200 6.5% 1 9 107,967 2.9 26.8% 24
2007 8 2005 10 14 4,008 47,328 11.8% 563 1,031 1.7 14 2005.10 129 4,008 338 13,136 194 8,670 31 1,409 563 23,215 2007.5 697 47,328 - - - - - - 1,031 39,293 21 2007 5 9 1 2006 2,182 5 1,466 716 20 1.5 2 40 1 400 / 1 5 10-20 1-10 4 30 10 100 2006 5 8.5% 2% 0.3-0.5% 2006 5 1 35 2006 1 2006 3,428 32,186 9.63% 25
4 12 13 10 1 1 1 2007 7 73 4,395 56 56 1,973 3-6 20,888 29.3% 6 5,048 43.1% 2. 2005 1 2 3 2005-2012 2011 2012 2007 1 4 3 4 6 3 4 29 2 4 3 2007 23 900 8 262 1,162 3.1% 1999 2000 2005 3 1999 1 1 HSK 2 26
3 4 1 1.5 2006 20% 36 6 3 1,972 3 2007 45 1,574 6 266 3 133 1,973 8.7% 1 47 2 64 111 2.9% 2007 1 3 7 2 6 6 2007 12 3 1 4 10 25 1 1 1 1 2 7 3 4HSK 6 2006 HSK 27
70% 50% 50%70%30%80-90%10-20% 95% 1 1 80%20% 300 20 9.6% 27 2 28
3 4 5 1 2 9 2002 2006 2007 2007 8.5 12 1 48 546 680 29
3 9.6% 1 1 2 3 4 5 6 4 Hanyu Shuiping Kaoshi HSK 1998 HSK 5 10 15 20 HSK HSK HSK 1 120 1.1 / 1. 4 / 30% 30
35%HSK 2000-3000 28 5 5 15 3 28 13 5 2007 45 475 90% 1 6 2 3 1 2006 70 130 78 50 2 2000 5,000 10% 3 450 900 31
1 2 2000 40 36 90%2006 102 17 2007 83 24 2008 10% 7 1998 8 1 1998 1 2006 5, 000 2 200 32
2 1,200 / 230 / 2,000 / 300 / 90% 2005 1,699 1,296 2006222 1000 /100 10 1,500 3,000 2,000 75 3 25 24 33
960 2002192 1997 56 2012 34
20022004 2003 20062006 2007 20002000 2 1-9 20082008 1 11-17 1983 2002 2004 2007 2002 2000 20062006 1993 2003 2003 Sautmen, Barry 1999, Expanding Access to Higher Education for China s National Minorities, Gerard A. Postiglione, ed. China s National Minority Education, New York: Falmer Press, pp.173-210. Wright, Sue 2004, Language Policy and Language Planning, Palgrave. 10 2002 ( 70 () ) 10 2006 50 10 1985 30 100 10 1987 80 100 150 2002 10 2003 20 70 35
10 2004 2005 20 2006 50 15 20 2003 30 40 ()() 60 ()() 10 2006 20 40 11 ( ) 11 11 11 21977-2006 1977 1978 1979 1980 1981 1982 1983 A65B80C65 A55B70C55 A55B65C55 A35B45C30 40 25 261 250 95 90 140 90 256 232 170 152 140 90 330 277 360 300 256 267 150 130 150 220 130 150 130 320 340 320 310 190 215 365 349 375 336 320 367 320 310 170 150 425 412 440 405 425 400 500 460 300 390 36
200 180 428 415 405 365 1984 320 295 350 300 171 172 180 155 430 415 405 440 400 385 1985 317 297 290 288 260 252 115 170 205 116 450 440 430 470 450 425 1986 245 235 335 300 285 190 180 195 210 445 428 419 470 435 421 1987 269 262 245 313 282 268 213 242 1988 463 453 441 480 453 443 305 304 290 423 385 370 1989 467 452 443 498 474 453 322 308 364 347 1990 434 418 409 500 473 454 247 264 282 277 1991 456 444 434 499 473 454 258 250 260 247 1992 458 445 435 523 500 473 283 276 285 275 440 430 420 482 458 443 1993 320 280 273 322 287 282 488 471 454 522 485 446 1994 410 368 342 378 335 312 343 340 489 475 468 502 465 445 1995 372 337 288 347 310 280 359 293 516 473 526 481 498 424 498 446 1996 375 322 326 402 326 231 478 460 444 468 414 388 1997 371 335 320 332 288 279 326 260 464 434 404 484 432 404 1998 343 324 309 337 309 301 1999 480 452 434 470 420 396 37
2000 2001 348 330 315 315 283 273 () 442 397 363 404 353 329 464 434 390 478 422 388 330 304 285 324 290 260 376 286 300 260 468 436 344 486 436 344 490 436 340 499 420 330 ( 330 296 255 315 265 220 ) (16) (16) (12) (18) (16) (12) 2002 ( 316 300 240 359 255 ) (16) (12) (12) (16) (12) 456 398 270 400 340 200 493 450 410 348 302 456 390 351 302 226 2003 ( ) 333 (18) 290 (18) 288 (18) 251 (13) 225 (10) 307 (18) 270 (18) 265 (18) 235 (13) 210 (10) 368 236 330 295 (18) (18) (18) (18) 476 400 388 370 320 300 538 484 437 320 522 447 397 300 ( 381 347 345 297 382 357 352 297 (23) (23) (23) (20) (23) (23) (23) (20) 2004 ) 470 399 397 421 375 373 516 455 360 290 507 433 350 270 ( 393 360 300 280 367 335 300 260 2005 (25) (24) (23) (22) (27) (26) (25) (24) ) 435 380 383 342 517 452 380 295 520 448 370 275 ( 398 371 345 290 357 328 310 270 2006 (26) (25) (24) (23) (29) (28) (26) (25) ) 440 382 390 370 1998 (1990-1998 ) 1999 8 38
3 1976 36 1976 60% 50%1977 1980 10 19 50% 1981 2 1981 1981 1981 1 11 2 1986 4 26 1986 1 11 100 2 11 30 3 4 5 1987 1 11 150 100 2 10 90 1 11 70 2 11 10 1999 1 2 3 marong@pku.edu.cn 100871 marong@pku.edu.cn 39