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5 103 17 300 75 100 50 25 25 6 5 1938 25-62 6 1996 127

104 25 25 0 50 40 71 79 190 65 96 79 240 11 36 32 7 16 1333 8 15 9 1,139 500 50 7 1997 5 1-137 1996 148-164 1994 2 72-78 2 1997 108-116 8 13 1/2 1983 72-90 13 3/4 1983 47-62 1992 171-226 1994 329-333 16 7/8 1987 69-84 9 86 8 88 7

105 190 240 240 15 15 15 15 14 58.3 17 68 0 0 31 63.3 10 41.7 8 32 0 0 18 36.7 24 100 25 100 0 0 49 100 1 0 0 1 13 100 37 97.4 1 100 51 98.1 0 0 1 2.6 0 1 1.9 13 100 38 100 1 100 52 100 27 33 78 138 27 73 54 85.7 1 100 82 81.2 10 27 9 14.3 0 0 19 18.8 37 100 63 100 1 100 101 100 28 33 78 139 65 96 79 240

106 240 101 73 85.7 27 14.3 15 63.3 15 98.1 15 15 5 7.8 9 12.5 0 0 14 10.3 19 29.7 15 20.8 0 0 34 25 7 10.9 8 11.1 0 0 15 11 2 3.1 3 4.2 0 0 5 3.7 0 0 4 5.6 0 0 4 2.9 31 48.4 33 45.8 0 0 64 47.1 64 100 72 100 0 0 136 100 11 3 0 14 75 75 0 150 9 34.6 34 39.5 0 0 43 38.1 6 23.1 17 19.8 1 100 24 21.2 5 19.2 5 5.8 0 0 10 8.8 4 15.4 16 18.6 0 0 20 17.7 0 0 3 3.5 0 0 3 2.7 2 7.7 11 12.8 0 0 13 11.5 26 100 86 100 1 100 113 100 88 136 233 457 114 222 234 570 14 15.6 43 27.2 0 0 57 22.9 25 27.8 32 20.3 1 100 58 23.3 12 13.3 13 8.2 0 0 25 10 6 6.70 19 12 0 0 25 10

107 0 0 7 4.4 0 0 7 2.8 33 36.7 44 27.8 0 0 77 30.9 90 100 158 100 1 100 249 100 99 139 233 472 189 297 234 720 240 720 249 249 30.9% 23.3% 22.9% 2.8% 15 15 10.3% 38.1% 15 11.5 % 47.1 % 15 15 10 Kesig 11 10 1976 83 2060 11 1983 59-111 92 12 1980 1-37

108 1257-1308 12 13 14 1308-1366 1333 5 1345 15 1265-1344 16 4 1327 17 18 12 40 3-3 13 4 295-298 1996 124-125 129-130 14 40 3 15 141-230 16 35 5-11 145 4-8 17 134 3256-3259 18 24 16-17

109 4 1327 1330 2 1342 1205-1248 1229-1309 19 20 1321 1333 21 1197-1265 22 1231-1280 13 53 23 24 5 1318 1296-1349 19 121 2292-2295 28 12-17 20 1973 136 7 1993 4 97-103 136 164 21 1934 2 9-10 Hsiao Ch i-ch ing, Lien Hsi-hsien, in Igor de Rachewiltz, et al (eds.), In the Service of the Khan Wiesbaden: Harrasowitz, 1993, pp. 480-499 7 1999 123-136 22 125 3070-3072 23 81 24 145 3447-3448 25 27 13-16

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111 32?1196-1262 1246-1284 33 1297-1307 34 5 1318 1324 2 1316 1321 4 1327?-1360 5 1345 5 1345 8 1348 1287-1364 35 36 243-297 33 11 3-11 1985 54 49 25 1-5 34 5 8 35 25 50 36 2 17-24

112 2 1315 1178-1223 37 1216-1263 38 39 1255-1313 40 41 2 1342 42 43 1330 44 45 1197-1265 3 1231 1231-1280 1244 1190-1273 1991 1988 4 89-95 1998 331-337 37 124 2695-2696 1990 27 638-641 38 134 3244-3246 39 13 236-239 40 26 16-20 13 245-246 41 13 245-246 42 43 1-3 43 6 44 299-322 45 29 499 46 65 1-16

113 46 47 48 49 14 1354 50 1254-1300 51 1291-1341 52 47 7 17 48 134 3254 4 21 49 7 18 4 54 5 79 50 2 10-11 4 81-82 36-56 1985 4 117-121 51 1986 7 158-161 52 27 15 2 3-4 53 35 9-10

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116 % % % 3 17.6 0 0 3 8.8 2 11.8 0 0 2 5.9 2 11.8 1 5.9 3 8.8 2 11.8 2 11.8 4 11.8 1 5.9 0 0 1 2.9 1 5.9 0 0 1 2.9 1 5.9 3 17.6 4 11.8 0 0 4 23.5 4 11.8 0 0 1 5.9 1 2.9 1 5.9 1 5.9 2 5.9 1 5.9 0 0 1 2.9 2 11.8 3 17.6 5 14.7 1 5.9 1 5.9 2 5.9 0 0 1 5.9 1 2.9 17 100 17 100 34 100 8 23 31 25 40 65 34 % % % 5 20.8 24 36.9 29 32.6 8 33.3 11 16.9 19 21.3 8 33.3 19 29.2 27 30.3

117 3 12.5 4 6.2 7 7.9 0 0 4 6.2 4 4.5 0 0 1 1.5 1 1.1 0 0 1 1.5 1 1.1 0 0 1 1.5 1 1.1 24 100 65 100 89 100 1 6 7 25 71 96 29 27 19 84.3 7 5 60 61 Wiesbaden: Otto Harrasowitz, 1973 1993 236-260 61 3 161-270 271-338 1995 169-201 Thomas T. Allsen, The Yuan Dynasty and the Uighurs of Turfan in the 13th Century, in M. Rossabi ed., China among Equals Berkeley: University of California Press, 1983, pp. 243-280 62 1992 1994 1997 112-328; Morris Rossabi, The Muslims in the Early Yuan Dynasty, in John D. Langlois ed., China under

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119 68 69 Balkash Qayaligh 11 70 15 Erke un 71 Ural Aral Sea Desht-i Qipchag 72 14 5 Barthold, Four Studies on the History of Central Asia, vol. I Leiden: E.J. Brill, 1956, pp. 103-104 70 10 5-6 71 1932 1 1982 137-162 72 16 1982 117-130 73 H. Franke, Tibetans in Yuan China, in John D. Langlois ed., China under Mongol Rule, pp. 296-328

120 4 73 74 15 75 74 6 12 1977 1-19 7 1/2 1977 11-61 1984 218-238 1985 156-162 1992 2 67-74 75 74-81 76 226-236 77 15 248-249 78 51 25-26 68 22

121 15 68.2 10 71.4 12 54.5 7 50 7 31.8 4 28.6 10 45.5 7 50 22 100 14 100 22 100 14 100 0 7 0 5 3 4 3 6 68.2 71.4 54.5 50 25 1305-? 1308-? 1302-? Arghun Mussulman 1308-? Dashman 76 1261- - 24

122 1334 77 78 15 15 40 71 17 79 80 81 82 83 79 1990 27 638-641 80 134 3244-3245 81 13 245-246 82 9 138-145 83 28 12-17 84 1986 7 158-161 85 41 18

123

124 84 85 1254-1327 86 15 5 87 4 1326 88 89 2 1301-1341 86 1971 244 87 27 13 88 21 359-361 89 203-242 90 39 17 91 267-270 291-294 92

125 90 91 92 93 94 2 81.2 % 1999 5 93 46 23-31 94 3 98

126 18.8 % 46.2 % 30.9 %

127 Backgrounds of the Mongol and Se-mu Chin-shih of the Yuan Dynasty: An Analysis Hsiao Ch i-ch ing Abstract The civil service examination system of the Yuan dynasty was a faithful reflection of the unique sociopolitical structure of that period. The fact that the Mongols and the Se-mu were guaranteed a quota of chin-shih successful candidates in the metropolitan examinations) equal to that of the Chinese majority was a salient feature of the Yuan system. The Mongols and the Se-mu were privileged conquering minority groups with cultural backgrounds sharply different from that of the Chinese. Using the List of Chin-shih of A.D. 1333 and 15 other chin-shih records reconstructed by the author, this paper examines the relationship between the backgrounds of Mongol and Se-mu chin-shih and their success in the examinations from three different perspectives. In terms of the bureaucratic background of their families, more than 80% of the chin-shih had official backgrounds, and less than 20% could be considered new blood in the sense that none of their forebears in the previous three generations had held an office under the Mongol-Yuan regime. These statistics indicate that the main function of the examination system was to open a new door to officialdom for the scions of bureaucratic families. Nevertheless, the system still injected a small but significant amount of new blood into the originally closed Mongol and Se-mu elite stratum. In terms of ethnic background, while the numbers of the chin-shih produced by various Mongolian tribes and clans show no major differences, those produced by various Se-mu groups differed greatly from each other. This

128 is because while the Mongols had become an ethnically and culturally homogeneous group by the 14 th century, the Se-mu was constituted of peoples from sharply divergent ethnic and cultural backgrounds. The degree of success achieved by various Se-mu groups in the Yuan examinations was closely related to the original levels of culture these ethnic groups had achieved before entering China. In terms of the marital backgrounds of the chin-shih families, a significant proportion of the chin-shih were from Mongol and Se-mu families that had intermarried with the Chinese. The Chinese mothers in elite families were often educated and exerted great influence on their scions in terms of cultural orientation. In sum, from a social perspective, the chin-shih as a group can be considered an extension of the original Mongol and Se-mu elite stratum. From a cultural perspective, the chin-shih were the products of the most heavily sinicized Mongol and Se-mu families. Key Words: Yuan dynasty, civil service examination, chin-shih, Mongols, Semu