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1 哲学的性质和意义从规范的视角看林垚纽约文化沙龙

2 免责声明 The First Law of Philosophy: For every philosopher, there exists an equal and opposite philosopher. The Second Law of Philosophy: They're both wrong. 2

3 怎样黑哲学缺乏标准缺乏共识缺乏进展缺乏意义被科学淘汰概念的滥用和贬值 : o 各人有各人的人生哲学管理哲学吴清源的围棋艺术已经上升到了一种哲学境界中医是哲学, 不是科学, 不能拿科学的标准来评判 V.S. o 科学养生科学算命科学发展观 3

4 A Universal Philosophical Refutation A philosopher once had the following dream. First Aristotle appeared, and the philosopher said to him, Could you give me a fifteen minute capsule sketch of your entire philosophy? To the philosopher's surprise, Aristotle gave him an excellent exposition in which he compressed an enormous amount of material into a mere fifteen minutes. But then the philosopher raised a certain objection which Aristotle couldn't answer. Confounded, Aristotle disappeared. Then Plato appeared. The same thing happened again, and the philosophers' objection to Plato was the same as his objection to Aristotle. Plato also couldn't answer it and disappeared. Then all the famous philosophers of history appeared one by one and our philosopher refuted every one with the same objection. After the last philosopher vanished, our philosopher said to himself, I know I'm asleep and dreaming all this. Yet I've found a universal refutation for all philosophical systems! Tomorrow when I wake up, I will probably have forgotten it, and the world will really miss something! With an iron effort, the philosopher forced himself to wake up, rush over to his desk, and write down his universal refutation. Then he jumped back into bed with a sigh of relief. The next morning when he awoke, he went over to the desk to see what he had written. It was, That's what you say. Raymond Smullyan (1983) 4

To the philosopher's surprise, Aristotle gave him an excellent exposition in which he compressed an enormous amount of material into a mere fifteen minutes.

5 一粉顶十黑 Philosophy is the love of wisdom. 无用之用, 是为大用一切科学的基础对终极问题的追问 o 胡适 : 凡研究人生切要的问题, 从根本上着想, 要寻一个根本的解决 : 这种学问叫做哲学哲学就是反思 o 学习哲学有助于反思 The aim of philosophy, abstractly formulated, is to understand how things in the broadest possible sense of the term hang together in the broadest possible sense of the term. (Wilfrid Sellars) 你是谁? 你从哪里来? 你到哪里去? 5

决 : 这种学问叫做哲学哲学就是反思 o 学习哲学有助于反思 The aim of philosophy, abstractly formulated, is to

6 继续粉 ( 黑 )? Philosophy, as I shall understand the word, is something intermediate between theology and science. Like theology, it consists of speculations on matters as to which definite knowledge has, so far, been unascertainable; but like science, it appeals to human reason rather than to authority, whether that of tradition or that of revelation. All definite knowledge so I should contend belongs to science; all dogmas as to what surpasses definite knowledge belongs to theology. But between theology and science there is a No Man s Land, exposed to attack from both sides, and this No Man s Land is philosophy. (Bertrand Russell) 哲学的三重功能 (Peter Godfrey Smith 2013) 整合功能 (integrative role): [The] field is not self contained, and makes extensive contact with what goes on outside it. Philosophy can make contact with other fields without being swallowed up by them. [The] integrative role [ ] is one that is especially relevant now, because of specialization in intellectual life. 孵化功能 (incubator role): Philosophy is a place where ideas are developed in speculative and broad form, in theory sketches and schemata, that often then make their way into an empirical form within some science, or into a mathematical form, or some other more focused form. 教育功能 (educational role): [What] is distinctive [about philosophy] is a set of skills clarity, analysis, critical thinking. Philosophers [ ] do not know any special facts or theories, and have no permanent subject matter, but they have a skill set that can be usefully brought to bear on any problem. 6

that of tradition or that of revelation. All definite knowledge so I should contend belongs to science; all dogmas as to what surpasses definite knowledge belongs to theology.

7 那么到底哲学是干嘛的? 传统叙事规范视角形而上学 ( 第一哲学 ) 认识论语言哲学数理逻辑分析哲学现象学科学哲学认识论转向语言学转向认知规范性工具与方法实践规范性认识论科学哲学心灵哲学形而上学语言哲学前科学的哲学推测逻辑学语言哲学道德哲学应用伦理学法理学政治哲学元伦理学形而上学 7

8 规范性实然 vs. 应然是 (is) / 陈述 (declarative)/ 描述 (descriptive)/ 实证 (positive)/ 事实 (facts)/ 原因 (cause) 应当 (ought) / 祈使 (imperative)/ 规制 (prescriptive)/ 规范 (normative)/ 价值 (values)/ 理由 (reason) 实然 / 应然之分成立吗? 看似实然的应然概念 / 命题 & 看似应然的实然概念 / 命题 o 因果性 o 上帝 ( 不 ) 存在 o 内部理由 (internal reasons) o Universal values are not universal. o 实然断言的规范基础 & 应然辩护的事实材料 8

(ought) / 祈使 (imperative)/ 规制 (prescriptive)/ 规范 (normative)/ 价值 (values)/ 理由 (reason) 实然 / 应然

9 哲学的方法与限度 (I) 逻辑常见的逻辑谬误逻辑的规范基础? 日常语言概念澄清家族相似性? 本质争议性概念? 9

10 If we had [a characteristica universalis], we should be able to reason in metaphysics and morals in much the same way as in geometry and analysis. If controversies were to arise, there would be no more need of disputation between two philosophers than between two accountants. For it would suffice to take their pencils in their hands, to sit down to their slates, and to say to each other: Let us calculate. Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz 10

If controversies were to arise, there would be no more need of disputation between two philosophers than

11 哲学的方法与限度 (II) 直觉直觉泵物理学思想实验 vs. 哲学思想实验反思平衡? 论证效力 (validity) vs. 力量 (power) 信仰先于理性? 严密 vs. 洞见 11

12 哲学的方法与限度 (III) 哲学史与哲学经典内在价值 vs. 工具价值? 编史学的偏见 12

13 Why is there something instead of nothing? 是有意义的问题吗上帝存在的宇宙论证明 Agent causation vs. Event causation Simplest cosmic possibility vs. Simplest explanatory possibility 混淆实然应然 13

14 模糊性 (vagueness) 聚沙成堆? 秃头? Note: vagueness ambiguity. 14

15 The Sorites Paradox 脑袋上只长 0 根头发算秃头对于所有自然数 n, 如果脑袋上长 n 根头发算秃头, 那么脑袋上长 n+1 根头发也算秃头结论 : 脑袋上长再多根头发都是秃头 15

16 思路例一 :Supervaluationism 临界案例不存在锐边界 (sharp boundaries) ; 模糊谓词没有单一的确凿外延, 但有一系列可能的外延, 选择其中任何一种外延都导致相应的锐化 (precisification/sharpening) S is (super)true iff S is true on every admissible precisification; S is (super)false iff S is false on every admissible precisification; S is vague iff S is neither (super)true nor (super)false. 应用前述佯谬中的归纳步骤属于 (super)false 与经典逻辑经典语义学难以兼容高阶模糊性倒退问题 16

precisification; S is (super)false iff S is false on every admissible precisification; S is vague iff S is neither

17 思路例二 :Epistemicism 临界案例存在锐边界, 但我们不知道也不可能知道边界何在 (Timothy Williamson 2000) Margin for Error Principle Where one has only alimitedcapacityto discriminate between cases in which p is true and cases in which p is false, knowledge requires a margin for error: casesinwhich one is in a position to know p must not be too close to cases in which p is false, otherwise one's beliefs in p in the former cases would lack a sufficiently reliable basis to constitute knowledge. 与经典逻辑经典语义学相容与知识 ( 知道 ) 的定义挂钩反直觉 : 大多数人难以接受模糊谓词均有精确外延 ( 何况外延不可知 ) 的结论如何取舍? 17

in a position to know p must not be too close to cases in which p is false, otherwise one's beliefs in p in the former cases would lack a sufficiently

18 实践应用? 电车问题的模糊性变体后果论 consequentialism 道义论 deontology Act consequentialism Absolute deontology Rule consequentialism Threshold deontology 18

19 扳扳手 vs. 推胖子心理学研究能告诉我们什么? 不能告诉我们什么? Moral Tribes (Joshua Greene) vs. The Normative Insignificance of Neuroscience (Selim Berker) 19

20 自由志意科研进展对自由意志构成挑战吗? 脑科学遗传学发展心理学自由意志与决定论 The Consequence Argument 自由意志与非决定论 The Unintelligibility Argument The Supervenience Argument 自由意志与道德责任 Ought implies can. 自由意志与慎思 (deliberation) 20

21 21

22 什么是科学? 科学的划界问题科学 vs. 伪科学 vs. 非科学证实? 证伪? o 划界不合理 o 归纳统计模型的效力 o 亚决定问题与信任范式? o 方法论 o 价值观本体论承诺 o 共同体 o 跨范式比较? 22

23 科学 : 认知与实践本体论承诺 (ontological commitment) 自然主义什么是自然法则? 物理主义? 还原论? 突现论? 身心一元论? 心智因果力? 副现象? 感质? 科学理论及其解释力科学实在论该不该信任科学家? 为什么? 什么时候? 进化论转基因中西医之争疯牛病疫苗全球变暖科学伦理公共政策 23

24 什么是知识? 怎样算知道? 哥蒂尔问题 Edmund Gettier (1927 ) 24

25 老林跟老赵是好基友老赵是个猫奴老林昨天白天才去老赵家玩, 还逗了会儿他家那只黄猫显然, 至少在昨天逗猫的时候, 老林是知道老赵家有只猫的老林今天又有事得上老赵家一趟老林走在路上, 百无聊赖地想着 : 老赵家有只猫我一会儿就会见到老赵养的猫但老林没有意识到, 昨天晚上, 老赵的黄猫意外去世了, 老赵痛不欲生夜不能寐老林同样没有意识到, 今天一大早, 有只迷路的黑猫闯进了老赵家, 已经被猫尽可奴的老赵收养所以老赵家现在确实有只猫, 老林一会儿也确实会见到老赵养的猫那么问题来了 : 老林这会儿走在去老赵家路上的时候, 究竟真的知道 (truly know) 老赵家有只猫呢, 抑或其实并不知道只不过是相信 (merely believe) 老赵家有只猫? 25

26 心理学 Weinberg et al. (2001): 东亚人与西方人对哥蒂尔问题有不同直觉 Kim & Yuan (2015); etc.: 实验结果无法重复哲学跨文化直觉差异的存在与否, 对我们关于知识应该怎样定义这个问题的思考应当造成影响吗? 为什么? 性别差异呢? 阶层差异呢? 年龄差异呢? 在其它哲学问题上的差异呢? 直觉有关紧要吗? 哲学直觉 vs. 科学直觉? 怎样看待直觉在哲学中的地位与作用? 可能的回应 : 代际差异 ;? 26

27 小纪开车从一个村庄附近经过他开车时向来专心看路, 从不四下张望刚才他极其偶然地往路边瞥了一眼, 远远看到村里有栋房子特别像祠堂小纪心想 : 哟, 我看到了一座祠堂小纪没有想错, 他看到的确实是一座祠堂但他不知道的是, 他看到的恰好是村里唯一一座真正的祠堂他同样不知道的是, 当年为了取悦某位下乡巡视的领导, 村里把不少民居的外观都照着这座祠堂的模样修葺了一番结果, 任何人从这条路上开车经过, 远远看到这些民居里的任何一栋, 都会以为自己看到的是一座祠堂那么问题来了 : 小纪究竟真的知道 (truly know) 自己刚才看到的是一座祠堂呢, 抑或其实并不知道只不过是相信 (merely believe) 自己刚才看到的是一座祠堂? 27

28 田教授开了一门课选课周结束后的第一堂课, 田教授站在讲台上, 目光缓缓扫过教室, 不动声色地点了点班上的人头总共 73 名学生田教授心想 : 那我以后每堂课只要打印 80 份讲义, 就足够发给这个班上的所有学生了但田教授没有注意到, 在她默默地点着人头的过程中, 有位学生起身换了个座位, 结果被她多算了一次其实这个班上总共只有 72 名学生, 而不是 73 名当然,80 份讲义发给 72 名学生肯定也是够的那么问题来了 : 田教授究竟真的知道 (truly know) 只要打印 80 份讲义就足够发给班上学生呢, 抑或其实并不知道只不过是相信 (merely believe) 只要打印 80 份讲义就足够发给班上学生? 28

29 解决思路若干凡以错误前提为基础的信念都不算知识过强,( 几乎 ) 排斥所有知识辩护不可击倒 (indefeasibility of justification; Peter Klein 1971) Defeaters of defeaters? 无穷倒退导致条件太弱事实与信念的特定联系 Reliabilism (Alvin Goodman 1967): causal production by a generally reliable process 无条件可靠 vs. 有条件可靠 ; 关于可靠性的元信念 ; 实际认知过程 vs. 假想认知过程 Intellectual credibility (John Greco 2000): appropriate involvement of cognitive abilities 信念的新条件 Accuracy, adroitness, aptness (Ernst Sosa 2007), adeptness, amplitude (John Turri 2011) 接受现状 (Brian Weather 2003) 语境论 (contextualism; David Lewis 1996) 怀疑论? 放弃知识的闭合性知道作为特定心智状态 (Williamson 2000) Anti luminosity;common knowledge 不可能? 29

30 信念度 (Credence) 归纳证词信任证据准入的标准? 贝叶斯推断刻板印象 (stereotype) 与种族归档 (racial profiling)? 信念宽容坚持 To realize the relative validity of one's convictions and yet stand for them unflinchingly is what distinguishes a civilized man from a barbarian. (Joseph Schumpeter) 30

31 真与善 : 元问题 Have I just screwed up my talk at New York Culture Salon? 31

32 实践规范性 : 软哲学? 32

33 身份认同 (identity) 与人格地位 (personhood) 差异与歧视 : 性别种族阶层宗教视角直觉差异? 反思平衡的起点和终点? 社会权力体系结构性不公与隐性压迫代际正义? 未来世代与无身份 (non identity) 问题人人生而平等 : 原则例外阈值胎儿是人吗? 堕胎权之争对胎儿的健康危害怎么办? 人类胚胎转基因集体的人格公司的宗教豁免权? 转型正义中的集体责任动物伦理 Sentient beings vs. rational beings? Suffering vs. conceptualizing? 33

34 价值的冲突与调和宗教自由与同性恋平权自由与平等何谓自由? 伤害原则? 民主的合法性 34

35 意义人生死亡交际信仰 35

Microsoft Word - 第四組心得.doc

Microsoft Word - 第四組心得.doc 徐婉真這四天的綠島人權體驗營令我印象深刻, 尤其第三天晚上吳豪人教授的那堂課, 他讓我聽到不同於以往的正義之聲轉型正義, 透過他幽默熱情的語調激起了我對政治的興趣, 願意在未來多關心社會多了解政治第一天抵達綠島不久,