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衲圜毛
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20 Mode rn Chine se Histo ry S tudie s No. 2, 2009 Tem ples in Northern Area s and Soc ia l Culture in the La te Q ing Per iod W ang Q ingcheng (4) In the late Q ing period, there were temp les in all villages in Northern areas, no matter big or small. Indeed, we could certainly say that without temp les there would be no villages. Through specific exam inations of seven p refectures and counties, i. e., W uqing, Shenzhou, D ingzhou, Q ingxian, Tangxian, W angdu and Yanqing, we know that the number of temp les belonging to big villages with populations of one thousand or more far exceeded the average of villages in that area, and the number of temp les belonging to small villageswith populations of one hundred or lesswas less than the average. How2 ever, there are also many opposite cases. Among village temp les, Land God temp les were the most common ones, and Guan2 di, D ragon King, Zhenwu and Guanyin ( Goddess ofmercy) were also the main gods of folk religions, Taoism and Buddhism worshiped by many temp les. There appear to have been no strict rules or regulations as to whether these temp les were run by Buddhist monks, nuns or Taoist p riests. Moreover, temp les were not only p laces for villagers to get sp iritual sustenance and p ray for happ iness or freedom from disasters, but also p rovided spaces for villagers to build social relief institutions and estab2 lish free and /or p rivate schools. Therefore, village temp les at the time had extensive social and cultural functions. The Forma tion of a Genera l Sen tim en t am ong W esterners in Ch ina for W ag ing W ar aga in st Ch i2 na before the O p ium W ar W u Yixiong (23) Following the rise of Sino2B ritish conflicts around 1830, W esterners in China became more and more dissatisfied with the Canton trading system, and gradually formed a general sentiment in favor of using force against China. W esterners dis2 tributed a number of English language newspapers and magazines in Canton through which they advanced their views, and called in the early 1930 s form ilitary threats against China to force the Q ing government to abolish the Canton system and re2 alize free trade. After the W illiam John Nap ier Incident in 1834, these views developed into a general sentiment in favor of waging a war against China. Both the idea of threatening China with m ilitary force and the idea of waging a war against Chi2 na aroused disputes among W esterners in China, some of whom were opposed to the idea of relying on m ilitary force to change Sino2W estern relations. After a number of pamphlets on Sino2W estern relations written by English peop le were pub2 lished in 1837, W esterners in China set forth differing China policies in their own newspapers and magazines, variously p roposing app lying p ressure through m ilitary force, increasing commercial intercourse, or reform ing China through religion. However, after the H ingtae Hong debt case in 1837 and 1838, almost allw esterners were dissatisfied with the Canton au2 thority s settlement, and the idea of waging war against China gradually became their common op inion. Pol itica l Struggles between Congressm en and the M ilitary Faction in the Background of In stitu2 tiona l Tran sforma tion: Cen tered on the Re2organ iza tion of the M ilitary Governm en t in 1918 Tan Q unyu (44) Academ ic D isputes in Pek ing Un iversity before and after the M ay Fourth M ovem en t and the O r i2 g in of Hu Sh i s Idea of Sorting out the Na tiona l Cultura l Her itage W ang Tiangen (61) Narra tive and Anc ien t H istory : The L ink between D oubting An tiqu ity and In terpreting An tiqu ity in the 1920 s and 1930 s W ang D ong jie (81) Conventionally, the two academ ic paths of doubting antiquity and interp reting antiquity in the 1920 s and 1930 s in China have been regarded as rep resenting two different routes of respectively tearing down and rebuilding ancient history. Generally speaking, this view is tenable. However, concep tually the two paths share many related and even identical ele2 ments. On the one hand, those scholars who advocated rebuilding ancient history saw the construction of history through a

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