Ξ,,,,,,,,,, Ξ,,,,,, 79
2002 5,,,,, 1990,, 1996,,,,,, 1949,,,2000, 2001 3 ;20, 3,2000 7,1990,210 245 1996 2,18 22 1998,528 537 :(1580 1644), 1997 1, 31 ; :, :,2001,146 148 80
,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,, (),,,,, (20 ),,, :,,,,,, (:,: 4, 1997,639 ), (,1986,247 ), (, 1992,502 ),, 1978, 25,3,22 (:,1985,6 ),,, (,1994,96 132 ) 81
2002 5,, 30 %, (cholera) 70 %,,,,,,,,,,,,,, :,,,,,,,,,, :(1580 1644), 1997 1, 31 :,, 148 82
,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,, : 13, : 4, 1963,353 358 ;: (), 1,267 ; : 1, 4, 27 45 48 ; :,, 1979,27 85, ( ),,1970 1974 1983,199,1664 ; 15, 184,1082 1083 ;:,: 4,679 83
2002 5,,,,,,,,,,,,,, (,,),,,, : 2, 4,153 ; 39, 143,3905 ; 30, 169,2631 ;14, 174,708 ;22, 425,989 ;:, 1947 1,4 ;:, 8 4,1935 4,26 ; 11, ( ) 2,1992,409 ; 17, 405,774 ; 39, ( ) 5,1991,386 ; 34, 59,682 ; 11, 185,1883 ; 12, 2,776 ; :,,42 ;:, 4,453 466 ;:, 1959, 72 ; :,,1959,105, 85,1664 :15,1083 ; 8, 599,1125 ; : 3, 4,169 ;:,156,,231 232 ; 4, 37,564 ; 1, 1,91 ; 51, 19,925 ; :,: 6,, 1973,707 84
,(),,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,, 39,3905 ;30, 2631 ;14,708 ; 17,774 ;22,1484 ; : 4, 4,293 ; 18,,12a 12b ; :,1994,2 ; 5, ( ) 8, 1991, 130 ; () :, 4, 561 ; :,: 6,716 ; :,,112 ; 19, 8,490 ; :,,, 1999 12,8 ;85,1664 ; 43, 478,2889 8, 457,932 ; :, 4,579 ;8, 464,155 ; 9, 23,613 ; : 4, 4, 313 ;: (), 1985,1144 ; 10, 407,1121 ; 17, 135,190 ; 30, 196,3134 85
2002 5, 5 3 24 17 9,,,, 32,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,, ( ), 2001 2,4 6 :, 1996 2,19 86
,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,, :,537 :,, 146 148,132 : 1, 4,47 :,,42 87
2002 5 88
,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,, (),,,,,,,,,,,,,,, :,: 6,507 513 :, 4,561 :, 4,579 18, 14,992 (,,2000 ),212 213 :,1997,365 373 374 89
2002 5,,, :,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,, (),,,, (535 ),,( ), : 4, 4,275 :,105 106,103 104,363 90
,,,,, ;,,,,,,,,,,,,, 3, (), 3,,,,,,,, ;,,,,, : 1, 4,45 48,98 : 21, 4,457 469,153 156,,, 2 3,,,,,,,,(,85 87 ;,1978,202 204 ) 91
2002 5,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,1854 1863, 9, 10 10 7,,, (, 2001 2 ) : 21, 4,453,,,, :, 1986,1631 1649 92
,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,, : (1), ; (2),, ; (3),,,,,, (14, 407,1561 1562 ) : (22,1483 ) :, 1996 2,19 22,1483 :, 1996 2,21 93
2002 5,:,,, :,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,, ;,,,, :,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,, : 4, 4,274 275 : (), 1,316 317 :,,19 ; 19, 4,351 94
(),,,,,,( ),,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,, ( ),,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,, 18,,40a : 2, 4,86 : 21, 4,445,,473 : (), 1,235 : 19, 4,353 95
2002 5,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,, :,,,,,,,,,,,:, :,, : 3, 4,169, 2001 2,8 : 4, 4,275 : (), 1,304 305 96
,,,,,,,,,, 8 % 15 %, 20 %,,,,, 4000, 8 % 15 %, 320 600,,,,,,,,,,,, ( 2001 2 ) 36 43, 41,3810 (, 70 2,1999 6,376 377 ),, 4000 97
2002 5,,,,,,,,,, :,,,,,,,,,,,,?,,,,,,,,,,, :,, 1994, 2606 :,,2797 :,, 2797,,2615 :,: 6,707 :, 1995 6,54 55 98
,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,, 300071 : 99
tween people and the land, and restrictions on production rights. Under this sys2 tem, the Chinese agricultural style of intensive and meticulous farming expanded to Mongolia. At the same time, the spread of the pangqing system was accom2 panied by massive migration, including the immigration of all sorts of peoples into Mongolia, and the settling down of Mongolian nomads and displaced persons. The first tide of migration took place in the southern part of East Mongolia during the Qing dynasty. The main pangqing relations at that time were among Hans. However, with the growth of population and division of land, these relations de2 creased, and Mongolians in the south migrated north because of poverty and so2 cial turmoil. During the late Qing dynasty and the Republican period, the second tide of agricultural expansion and migration took place in the northern part of East Mongolia. In the closed areas of Mongolia, the main pangqing relations were among Mongolians. It was precisely the pangqing system and migration which encouraged the transformation of rural society in East Inner Mongolia. Preliminary Look at the Epidemic in the Lower Yangtze Region dur2 ing t he Late Xianfeng, Early Tongzhi Period : Also a Discussion of t he Relationship between War and Epidemic Y u Xi nz hong (79) During the Taiping Rebellion, there was large scale of epidemic in the Low2 er Yangtze region. It began in the tenth year of Xianfeng, reached a climax in the first year of Tongzhi, and died down with the end of the war in the third year of Tongzhi. It led the death of millions of people. Among Lower Yangtze epi2 demics during the Qing dynasty, its death rate was highest, and its scale was sec2 ond only to the epidemic of the Jiaqing and Daoguang periods. The epidemic was composed of cholera, malaria, dysentery, smallpox, cholera - like plague, and probably included typhoid and pertussis, etc. The key factor that led to the breakout of this large scale epidemic was the war. At the same time, the pesti2 lence also influenced the course of the war itself. On the New Policies in Late Qing Tibet Zhao Y untian (100) 2