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1 :, ;, ;,,,, :,,, 334, (Seres),,,, 1,,,,,,, 150,,,,,, ( Hyrcanian Sea, ),,,, ( ) ( the Pillars of Heracles, ) :,, :, 1985,

2 ,, (Aristeas), ( Scyt hian), ( Issedones),,,, (6 ), ( ),,, 6,, ( ),,, 5 4 (Ctesias), H., ( B ibliotheca of Photi us),, H., H. :,, :, 2002, ; : 1, :, 1977, 17 ; :,, :, 2001, 1 :, (Vigile) ( Horace) ( Properce) (Ovide) ( Strabo) ( Seneque) ( Pomponins Mela) ( Pliny) (L ucan) (Ptolemy) ( Pausanias) (Ammianus Marcellinus) ( 1 54, ) H., :, :,,, 1985, :, 1, :, 1985, 3 25 ; :,, :, 1983, 22 ; :, :, 1986, 53 1 ; G. F. Hudson, Europe and China, London : Arnold & Co., 1931, pp. 37, 39 ; :,3, :, 1990, 1 16 Jorg Biel, Treasure from a Celtic Tomb,N ational Geog raphic, vol. 157, no. 3., March 1980, pp :, ,

3 2007 4, ;, ( Scylax, 510?) ;,,,,, ( The Imperial Roads) ( The Royal Road) (Susa),, ( Ep hesus) ( Sardis), 2000, (22 ) (Media), (lapis lazuli),,,,, ( The Kingπs Peace) 4,,,,,,, :, 282 (the Barcaeans), Josef Wiesehofer, A ncient Persia : From 550B C to 650A D, London : I. B. Tauris Publishers, 1996, pp Frank L. Holt, A lex ander the Great and B act ria, Leiden : E. J. Brill, 1989, p , (Balkh), 480 ( :, 494 ) ( Granicus) ( Issus) ( Gaugamela), 152 ( :, 344 ) (the Branchidae),, ( Xerxes), (Sogdiana) Strabo, Geog ra phy, XI , The L oeb Classical L ibrary, Cambridge, Mass. : Harvard University Press, (tetradrachms),, ,, 1000 Frank L. Holt, I nto the L and of B ones : A lex ander the Great in A f ghanistan, Berkeley : University of California Press, 2005, p :,

4 ,,,,,, 4,,,,,,, 334,,,,, 323,,,,,,, (t he Oxus),,, :,,, (Seleucia on Tigris) ;, (Bactra),,,,, (Antioch on t he Orontes),,, ( Petra ), ( Damascus), (Suez), :, 280,,,, W. W. Tarn, Hellenistic Civiliz ation, London : Edward Arnold ( Publishers) L TD, 1952, pp ; F. W. Walbank, The Hellenistic W orl d, Glasgow : William Collins Sons & Co. Ltd., 1981, pp ; Strabo, Geog ra phy, II , 15 ; XI ; Pliny, N atural History, V I. 52, The L oeb Classical L ibrary, Cambridge, Mass. : Harvard University Press, 1998.,, ( Tarn),,, 153

5 2007 4,,, 1,,,, 2, ( Euthydemus) ( Demetrius) ( Seres) ( Phryni),,,,, ( ) (Narain) (A. Cunningham), Seres Phryni,, 2, ( ),, ( Seleucus Nicator, ),,, 305 3,, ( ),, 2,,,, , F. W. Walbank, The Hellenistic W orl d, pp Strabo, Geog raphy, XI G. F. Hudson, Europe and China, p. 58.,,,, (176 ) A. K. Narain, I ndo2greeks, Appendix II, Oxford : Clarendon Press, 1957, pp Strabo, ( Eucratides, ), Strabo, Geog raphy, XI ; ,,,, 154 Geog ra phy, XV ( Indo2Greeks),, ;, (A. K. Narain, I ndo2greeks, p. 11),,,,

6 ,,, () 300, 275 (160 ),, 19 ( 8 ), ,,,,,,,,,, ( Hellenistic Cult ure) ( Hellenistic Civilization),,,,,, Asii PasianiTochari Sacarauli ( Strabo, Geog ra phy, XI ),,,,, Tochari (), W. W. Tarn, The Greeks in B act ria and I ndia, Cambridge : The Cambridge University Press, 1951, pp. 277, 286, 533 ; A. K. Narain, I ndo2greeks, p Strabo, Geog raphy, XI M. Cary, A History of the Greek W orl d, London : Methuen & Co. L TD, 1959, pp , Paul Bernard : An Ancient Greek City in Central Asia,Scienti f ic A merican, vol. 246, Jan. 1982, pp ; Ai khanum on the Oxus : A Hellenistic City in Central Asia,Proceedings of the B ritish A cadem y, vol. 53, 1967, pp ;, : 2,, :, 2002, Bernard 1979,,, Frank L. Holt, I nto the L and of B ones : A lex ander the Great in A f ghanistan, Berkeley : University of California Press, 2005, pp ; :, , ,,,,, (Onesicritus),, Strabo, Geog ra phy, XI , 1000 Apollodorus ( The Parthica) Strabo, Geog ra phy, XV

7 2007 4,,,,, (),,,,,,,?,,, ,, ,,,,,,,,,,,,?,,, (),,,,,,,,, ( Sogdiana), 53, (Carrhae), R. L. pp ; Plutarch, Moralia, 821D, The L oeb 156, ( B acchae) (Atarvasdes), ( Hyrodes, Orodes),,, Plutarch, Crassus, XXXIII, The L oeb Classical L ibrary, Cambridge, Mass. : Harvard University Press, Fox, A lex ander the Great, London : Futura Publications Limited, 1975, pp ; Josef Wiesehofer, A ncient Persia : From 550 B C to 650 A D, Classical L ibrary, Cambridge, Mass. : Harvard University Press, 1993.

8 , (, Parthia), ( Philhellenic Empire) ( ) (), (,, ), ;,,,,,, (),,,, ,,,,,,, ( Susis) (,, ), (Aria) (Margiana),,,,,,,,,,,, g (botrus),,, ( Strabo, Geog raphy, XI ) A. Toynbee, Hellenism, Oxford University Press, 1959, p William Cocke, First Wine? Archaeologist Traces Drink to Stone Age,N ational Geog raphic N ews, J uly 21,2004. http :/ / news. nationalgeographic. com/ news/ 2004/ 07/ 0721 _ _ ancientwine. Strabo, Geog raphy, XV Strabo, Geog raphy, XI :,,, Henry George Liddell and Robert Scott, A Greek2English L ex icon, with a revised supplement, Oxford : Clarendon Press, 1996, g, p. 323 ; :, :, 2004, 156 :, 2, :, Ritter,, (1, ), ( ) Budawa, Botrus : ( S ino I ranica),, :, 2001, , 157 html.

9 2007 4, ;,, ;,,,?,,,, 5000,,, 5000,,,,,,,,,,,,, :, g,, ( On the Fortune or the V i rtue of A lex ander) : Moralia, 328D., Frank L. Holt, I nto the L and of B ones : A lex ander the Great in A f ghanistan, Berkeley : University of (:, 147 ), 158, g(, buksuk buxsux, buxsuk,, ), (Media),, (Medic, ) Strabo, Geog ra phy, XI ; Henry George Liddell and Robert Scott, A Greek2 English L ex icon,, p Paul Bernard,An Ancient Greek city in Central Asia,Scienti f ic A merican, vol. 246, Jan. 1982, pp.,, ( Susianian) ( Gedrosian) Plutarch, California Press, 2005, p. 156., 323,, Frank L. Holt, A lex ander the Great and B act ria, pp. 81, 88.

10 ,,,,,,??,,,,?,,,,,,, :, ;, ;,,,,,,,, 318, (Lysimachus, , 297 ),,,,,,,, ( Stater ) ( Drachm) ( Tetradrachm) (Obol),,,,, (Megas, ), (Nameless King,, ), (Soter Megas, ), Megas ( :, No , :, 2006, ) Megas,, : 1735 ( Y YY), 1992 Mir Zakah, 55, 6 Frank L. Holt, I nto the L and of B ones : A lex ander the g reat in A f ghanistan, pp Ian Carradice and Martin Price, Coinage in the Greek W orl d, London : B. A. Seaby Ltd., 1988, p Ian Carradice and Martin Price, Coinage in the Greek W orl d, p. 116 ; Margarete Bieber, The Portraits of Alexander,Greece and Rome, 2 nd Ser., vol. 12, no. 2, Alexander the Great ( Oct., 1965), p. 185, Fig. 12. Ian Carradice and Martin Price, Coinage in the Greek W orl d, p. 120 ; Margarete Bieber, The Portraits of Alexander,Greece and Rome, 2 nd Ser., vol. 12, no. 2, p. 186, Fig. 13a. 159

11 2007 4, ( ), ( Tyche) (Nike) (Demeter) ( Herakles), ( Y, Arsaces) ( ),, ( Y) ( ) ( ) (Y) ( ),,, 312 (),,,,,,,,,,, ( 2750 ),,,,,, (pergamena ; parchment) ( Pergamum),, ( Eumenes II, 197, ),,, 20, ( ) Asangorna,, Josef Wiesehofer, A ncient Persia : From 550 B C to 650 A D, p. 128., http : / / www. parthia. com/ parthia _ inscriptions. htm # Y, Y Y,,, Meir Bar2Ilan, PA RC H M EN T, http : / / faculty. biu. ac. il/ barilm/ parchmen. htm. :, 370 Pliny, N atural History, XIII. xxi. Josef Wiesehofer, A ncient Persia : From 550B C to 650A D, p. 114 ; Frank L. Holt, I nto the L and of Frank L. Holt, Thundering Zeus : The M aking of Hellenistic B act ria, Berkeley : University of California 160 Greek ; http : / / www. parthia. com/ scripts/ url. asp.,,, : http : / / parthia. com/ parthia _ coins. htm ; http : / / www. grifterrec. com/ coins/ coins. html. B ones : A lex ander the g reat in A f ghanistan, p Press, p. 176.

12 ,, ( ),,,,,,, ( ƒ, common tongue), ( botrus)?,,,,,,, (Seric iron,, ),,,,,,,,,, ( : ) W. W. Tarn, Notes on Hellenism in Bactria and India,The J ournal of Hellenic S tudies, vol. 22, 1902, p. 278.,,, : ; Pliny, N atural History, XXXIV Albert E. Dien ( S ilk Road) Palmyra as a Caravan City http : / / www. silk2road. com/ newsletter/ 2004vol2num1/ Palmyra. htm ; Josef Wiesehofer, A ncient Persia : From 550B C to 650A D, p

13 CON TEN TS Manor Courts, Rural By2La ws and the Medieval Common Land Community" ZHAO Wenho ng (138) The management of t he common land communities t hat endured for a long time over a wide area of rural Europe was a mixt ure of autocratic rule by t he feudal lords wit h democratic element s. The highest power of t he community - t he manor court and the village council - was usually composed of all members of t he community, bot h serf s and yeomanry. The formulation and implementation of by2laws, t he highest form of law in common land communities, and ot her policies in most cases required t he agreement of all members. The Eastern Conquests of Alexander the Great and the Opening of the Silk Road YAN G J uping (150) The establishment of t he empire of Alexander t he Great and t he emergence of t he Hellenized world promoted cult ural and economic exchanges among t he ancient civilizations of Central Asia, India, t he eastern Mediterranean and Europe. Before t he time of Zhang Qian, t here were already t hree trade routes connecting East and West. Hellenistic cult ure was widely adopted in t he areas under t he control and influence of Greek Macedonians, and to a certain extent converged with Eastern cult ures. With the Oxus River as a center, t he Bactrian Greeks extended t heir power to India in t he sout h and to t he Seres and the Phryni in the east. They may have crossed t he Pamirs to t he Tarim Basin. All t his p rovided broad and st ro ng fo undatio ns fo r t he opening up and extensio n of t he Silk Road and for f urt her material and cult ural exchanges bet ween East and West. In t his regard, Alexanderπs east ward expeditio ns and Zhang Qianπs missio ns to t he Western Regions played similar roles in opening up the Silk Road. The Turkish Blockade of Trade Routes" and Western Colonization in the Middle East WAN G Sanyi (162) It remains a commonly accepted view t hat Europeans explored new trade routes only after t he Turks blockaded t he old o nes. However, t he Ot to man Empire was still rising when t he Port uguese vent ured fort h. At t he time when t he Port uguese reached India, t he Turks did not yet have a firm grip on t he eastern Mediterranean, Egypt and Syria. After successf ully pillaging West Af rica, t he Port uguese became unwilling to seek wealt h t hro ugh normal co mmercial dealings rat her t han plunder, so deliberately avoided t he t rade set2up maintained in t he Mediterranean by the Italians and t he Arabs. The argument that t he Turks blockaded t he trade routes is based on an exaggeration of t he Turkish threat" and hostility toward Muslims. In this respect, t he makers of p ublic opinion were t he later rat her t han t he earlier European colonizers. The actions of t he former in the Near East have expo sed t heir earlier ambitions. Research N otes Muke Script from the Karakhoto Site in Russian Collections : A Prel iminary Exploration SUN Jimin and DU Lihui (171) Original Manuscripts, Copies and Collated Versions of Classical Works in the West ZHAN G Qiang (179) 192

1 ilia kuanos 3 4 5 1 1 1998 17 Oxford Latin Dictionary, Oxford University Press, 1968, p. 85. 3Henry George Liddell & Robert Scott (ed.), A Greek-Eng

1003-568 0-0031- 10 B93 A 0040 008 1998 11 jade jade ilia 0 80 1 1 003 36-45 616-619 31 1 ilia kuanos 3 4 5 1 1 1998 17 Oxford Latin Dictionary, Oxford University Press, 1968, p. 85. 3Henry George Liddell