Taiwan Social Change Survey

Transcription

1 /8/3 2009/12/2

2 Taiwan Social Change Survey

3 Taiwanese Journal of Sociology, December 2009, 43: Post-industrializing Taiwan: Changing Class Structure and Social Inequality, Thung-hong Lin Institute of Sociology, Academia Sinica Abstract This paper looks at the question of whether new industrial countries (NICs) in East Asia are following the path of social transformation as claimed by post-industrialism and/or globalization theorists. I compare three approaches of social transformation (neo-marxist, post-industrial, and globalization) and examine their various hypotheses in terms of social momentum, class structure, class mobility, gender and class inequality, and class politics. Using a neo-marxist schema to analyze sampled datasets from the Taiwan Social Change Surveys, I found (a) a stable percentage of unskilled workers, declining percentage of self-employed, and an increasing percentage of experts; (b) educational credentials have become the major source of class mobility; (c) labor market gender segmentation has been reshaped and wage discrimination has decreased slightly; and (d) income inequality between capitalists and unskilled workers is still significant; the inequality between professional and unskilled workers is increasing. According to this analysis, social change in NICs such as Taiwan has primarily followed the post-industrial transformation of developed economies during the past two decades. Keywords: social class, social stratification, NICs, income distribution, social change

4 96 proletarianization a Block M 2007

5 Taiwan Social Change Survey, TSCS Erik Olin Wright , 1996a

6 98 Social Stratification Goldthorpe Communist Manifesto Marx and Engels 1998: 44 Marx 1977 Miliband 1977; Moore 1966; Skocpol 1979; Tilly 1978; Wright 1985

7 Max Weber Weber 1958 Baron and Sweezy 1966; Offe 1984 Braverman 1974; Edwards 1979; Burawoy 2005 [1979]; Block 1990 Wright Wright Wright 1985, 1997 Wright Wright 1985 Wright and Singelmann 1982: S179 Bowles and Gintis 1975 Wright and Martin 1987; Wright Frederic C. Deyo Koo 1990 Roy 1984; Walton 1987

8 100 Barrett and Whyte1982; Haggard 1990; World Bank 1993 Piore and Sabel 1984; Hamilton and Biggart Johnson 1982; Wade 2004 [1990] 1996 Yu and Su Huntington 1991; Wang 2002; Tsai, Fan, Hsiao and Wang ,

9 a, 1996b; Liu and Sakamoto M Esping-Andersen Denial Bell 1976: Bell 1970 Treiman 1977; Featherman and Hauser 1978

10 102 Wright and Martin 1987; Wright 1997 King and Szelényi 2004 Leon Trotsky Milovan Djilas Stalinism Djilas 1983; Trotsky 1973 Konrád and Szelényi 1979; Szelényi 1982; Wong 1996 Alvin Gouldner 1979 King and Szelényi 2004 Wright 1997 Meritocracy Erikson and Goldthorpe 1992: 19-24

11 Esping-Andersen 1999; DiMaggio and Mohr 1985; DiPrete 2002; Featherman and Hauser 1978 Reich 1991 Fred Block 1980 Block 1990: Block 1990; Gorz 1985, 1994; Giddens 1999 Bell Gouldner Esping- Andersen 1999: 99 a more proletarian mix of service occupations 1999: 107

12 Babb 2005 Manuel Castells Castells 2000a: 219 Castells Hirst and Thompson 1999 John Goldthorpe Goldthorpe 2002: 3 1 Babb 2005; Castells 2000a Giddens 1999; Huber and Stephens 2001; Korpi and Palme Goldthorpe grand globalization theorists Anthony Giddens John Gray Ulrich Beck What is Globalization? Beck 2000 The Third Way Giddens 1999 False Dawn Gray 1998

13 lumpenproletariat Castells 2000a: 281-5; Goldthorpe 2002 Portes Hoffman Portes and Hoffman Hite and Viterna 2005 Braverman 1974 Bell 1976; Thurow 1999 Castells 2000a, 2000b Firebaugh 2003; Milanovic 2005 Portes Hoffman Portes Castells Castells G7 Castells 2000a: a: 236 Portes and Hoffman 2003: 56-59, Table 3

14 106 Perrucci Wysong 2003 global corporate class Kerbo 2006 transnational capitalists Robinson 2004 networkers Castells 2000a senior executives Portes and Hoffman 2003 Esping-Anderson 1999; Huber and Stephens 2001 Scruggs and Lange 2002 Korpi and Palme 2003 Hall and Soskice 2001; Rudra 2002 Esping-Andersen 1999; Held 1995; Giddens 1999; Castells 2000b

15 a b c d Korpi 1978, 1983; Esping-Andersen 1990 Gray 1998; Giddens 1999 ideal-type 1

16 108 Wright 1997 Castells 2000a grand narratives Popper (a) (b) (c) (d) 表 1 各派社會理論分析工業社會階級結構變遷的對立假說 無產化理論 後工業理論 全球化理論 (a) (b) (c) (d) Bell 1976; Block 1990; Held 1995 Esping-Andersen 1999

17 Robinson b pathdependence contingency productive assets Wright 1997 Erikson and Goldthorpe 1992 Wright and Martin 1987; Wright 1997 Lin 2007; 2007b Erikson and Goldthorpe 1992: 12-13; Wright 1997: 27; Chan and Goldthorpe 2007: Yu and Su 2008

18 b 2007 Socio-economic Index, SEI 1 Wright b Wright and Cho TSCS 9,005 圖 1 本文中新馬克思主義的階級分類操作方式 Wright 1985: 88 Wright and Cho 1992

19 b 圖 2 台灣的實質每人平均國內生產毛額 ( 以 2000 年 PPP 平減 ) 與美國 日本以及瑞典的比較, Penn World Table 2006

20 ,144 Bell 7,451 5, , Fred Block 22, Bell % 60% 47% 72% % 26% % % 40% % % US Census Bureau xls

21 表 2 台灣的社會結構轉型 性別分工變遷與貧富差距, 相關社會指標 (%) / ¹ ¹ ¹ ² / Year04.doc

22 % 5.1% 2 21% 14% % % % % % 9.2% % 13.3% % % 6% : =543

23 圖 3 台灣公司創業趨勢的衰退與歇業趨勢的上升, % 9.5% 2.4% 8.5%

24 116 表 3 台灣社會變遷調查中受訪者的階級結構, / (N) 100(1781) 100(2061) 100(1293) 100(1279) 8.9% 17.1% 20.6% 11.2% p121

25 Hout 1980 Bourdieu 1984, 1986 [1983]; Featherman and Hauser 1978; Szelényi 1987 Multinomial Logistic Regression MNL Agresti 2002; Hendrickx and Ganzeboom odds-ratio 5 MNL

26 118 Blau and Duncan Bian and Logan 1996; Wu 2002; Xie and Wu 2008 redistributive power 1996b MNL individual attributes 2007b period cohort 1970 age-period-cohort, APC interactions parsimonious 4

27 MNL b 1970

28 b b

29 表 4 台灣階級流動終點的多元邏輯迴歸估計, 年到 2007 年的階級終點自僱者專家經理人專業經理人小雇主資本家 * 0.444* 0.639^ 0.711** 1.288*** (0.210) (0.212) (0.190) (0.366) (0.237) (0.334) 0.231* * (0.106) (0.112) (0.114) (0.171) (0.134) (0.222) (0.194) (0.193) (0.179) (0.308) (0.281) (0.443) * ^ 0.718** (0.133) (0.113) (0.119) (0.156) (0.182) (0.266) ** 0.034* 0.081*** (0.014) (0.015) (0.014) (0.020) (0.020) (0.029) (0.021) (0.022) (0.021) (0.028) (0.028) (0.043) ** 0.123*** ^ ** (0.028) (0.026) (0.026) (0.038) (0.037) (0.055) ** ** ** (0.222) (0.207) (0.208) (0.251) (0.308) (0.366) * 0.461^ 0.911*** 0.867** 0.968* (0.329) (0.269) (0.264) (0.335) (0.420) (0.820) * * *** *** (0.427) (0.396) (0.522) (0.284) (0.607) (0.294) ** ** *** ^ * (0.425) (0.489) (0.493) (0.770) (0.659) (1.513) ** 0.444* (0.177) (0.187) (0.189) (0.300) (0.265) (0.618) ^ 0.303*** 0.280*** 0.396*** 0.124*** 0.255*** (0.015) (0.029) (0.022) (0.050) (0.025) (0.045) *** *** *** * * (0.020) (0.031) (0.027) (0.052) (0.033) (0.059) ^ 1.060*** * (0.290) (0.161) (0.168) (0.225) (0.245) (0.336) *** ** *** (0.176) (0.179) (0.155) (0.277) (0.257) (0.366) 0.397** * * ^ (0.122) (0.133) (0.125) (0.167) (0.170) (0.474) APC 0.028*** 0.032*** 0.021** 0.030** 0.024* (0.006) (0.008) (0.007) (0.011) (0.010) (0.016) *** 1.801*** 2.958*** 0.865* (0.265) (0.404) (0.357) (0.726) (0.427) (0.782) *** *** 0.312* *** * (0.066) (0.081) (0.087) (0.135) (0.099) (0.186) ^ 0.218* (0.095) (0.110) (0.104) (0.201) (0.133) (0.241) *** *** * (0.144) (0.130) (0.159) (0.173) (0.199) (0.327) *** *** *** *** *** (0.792) (1.247) (1.073) (2.189) (1.308) (2.252) Log likelihood = Df=132 Wald-G² Pseudo-R² N * p<0.05, ** p<0.01, *** p<0.001, ^ p<0.1

30 122 圖 4 台灣階級流動終點發生率的世代差異 :1970 後世代黑手變頭家逐漸消失 Chu, Xie and Yu 2007

31 Gorz 1994; Giddens Hite and Viterna % % 20% % % % 79% ecological fallacy Tsai and Shavit

32 124 Yu 2009: 139 Chang and England oddsratio 5 5A 5B 5A A 1992 年與 2007 年女性進入各階級的發生比率

33 B 1970 前與 1970 後世代女性進入各階級的發生比率 圖 5 MNL 模型估計階級終點依性別分的發生比率 (Odds-ratio) 5B : 213

34 126 European Social Survey 2002/3 Leiulfsrud, Bison and Jensberg a % 20% 23.8% % 16.6% 60% % %

35 M 2008 表 5 台灣就業者平均年度基本所得按職業別分 (2008 年家庭收支調查報告 ) 基本所得人數分配人數分配金額 ( 元 ) 金額 ( 元 ) 增加倍數 (%) (%) 127, , , ,173, , , , , , , , , , , , ,

36 Weighted Least Square, WLS 1970 = ,989 82, ,635 42,352 3

37 表 6 各階級位置對實質所得對數的加權多元迴歸 (WLS) 結果, 迴歸係數 標準誤 (0.041) / 0.154*** (0.034) 0.325*** (0.032) 0.403*** (0.046) 0.485*** (0.061) 0.692*** (0.085) ** (0.028) 0.048* (0.019) (0.024) (0.023) (0.040) (0.054) 0.057*** (0.004) *** (0.004) 0.106*** (0.028) 0.207*** (0.025) ** (0.040) (0.022) / / (0.026) * (0.039) *** (0.024) (0.028) *** (0.032) 0.048* (0.024) ** (0.088) 0.046* (0.022) 0.071*** (0.020) APC 0.060*** (0.006) ² *** (0.000) *** (0.059) (0.016) *** (0.020) *** (0.033) 8.441*** (0.144) R² N * p<0.05, ** p<0.01, *** p<0.001, + p<0.1

38 130 圖 6 各階級受訪者的相對所得 :1992 年與 2007 年的比較, 自僱者 = ,848 20,196 22,850 24, Wu 2002; Xie and Wu 2008

39 Bian and Logan b

40 132 圖 7 台灣勞工平均勞動生產力的提升與實質工資的停滯, Block 1990; Esping-Andersen 1999

41 : Bowles and Gintis 1975 Becker 1964 Collins 1979 Bourdieu Liu and Sakamoto 2002

42 134 Lukács 1971; Thompson 1963 Lipset 1981 Wright 1997 Hout, Brooks and Manza 1995; Chan and Goldthorpe 2007

43 / 39.71% 31.63% 49.64% 63.98% Tsai et al Hu, Lin and Wong 2009

44 136 Block

45

46 138 proxy 1 12 附圖 1 新馬克思主義階級分類法在 年調查的操作變量

47 Wright 1985, 1997 impermeability Log-linear MNL MNL interactions

48 parsimonious 5 WLS

49 附表 1 台灣社會變遷基本調查 年匯總數據的敘述統計 變量 樣本數 平均數 標準差 最小值 最大值

50 142 附表 2 台灣社會變遷基本調查 年匯總數據中主要變量的簡單相關係數 (1) (2) (3) (4) (5) (6) (7) (8) (9) (10) (11) (12) (13) (14) (1) 0.19* (2) * (3) -0.23* -0.07* 0.03* (4) 0.08* 0.03* -0.25* 0.03* (5) -0.10* -0.04* -0.75* -0.05* 0.04* (6) 0.38* 0.22* 0.03* -0.07* (7) 0.18* 0.20* -0.10* -0.02* -0.08* 0.18* 0.47* (8) 0.15* 0.25* -0.03* -0.16* 0.09* -0.03* 0.16* 0.05* (9) 0.09* 0.07* -0.09* -0.11* 0.14* 0.04* 0.05* * (10) 0.12* 0.09* 0.03* -0.03* -0.03* -0.02* 0.16* 0.14* 0.18* -0.03* (11) -0.06* * -0.03* * -0.02* 0.04* * (12) 0.04* * * 0.04* 0.12* 0.08* -0.04* * -0.02* (13) 0.15* 0.14* 0.03* * 0.19* 0.16* 0.10* * * (14) -0.03* -0.06* 0.07* * 0.27* 0.04* 0.14* -0.15* -0.10* -0.03* 0.03* 0.29* -0.02* -0.19* 0.09* 0.11* * -0.19* -0.06* -0.15* 0.02* -0.04* -0.02* 0.06* -0.08* -0.03* -0.12* -0.16* -0.11* -0.09* -0.14* 0.12* 0.03* -0.10* -0.10* -0.03* 0.11* -0.06* * -0.06* -0.11* / 0.15* 0.21* 0.07* * -0.07* 0.18* 0.18* 0.07* * * * 0.08* 0.05* -0.12* 0.04* -0.09* 0.17* 0.04* 0.11* 0.04* 0.05* * -0.09* 0.20* 0.12* 0.02* -0.09* * 0.13* 0.07* 0.04* 0.10* -0.02* 0.03* 0.10* 0.08* 0.16* -0.07* * 0.06* -0.02* 0.05* * * * 0.17* -0.04* -0.02* -0.09* 0.04* * * * * * p<0.05

51 M result/95/a11/year04.doc : Female Marginalization 16:

52 144 2: : : : : : a 14: b a 11(1): b : Persistence and Erosion of Institutional and Cultural Capital: Stratification and Mobility in Taiwan. Pp

53 a b : : :

54 : : : Leaving the Farmland: Class Structure Transformation and Social Mobility in Taiwan U Fred Block

55 : (2): : Agresti, Alan, 2002, Categorical Data Analysis. Second Edition. New York: Wiley. Babb, Sarah, 2005, The Social Consequences of Structural Adjustment: Recent Evidence and Current Debates. Annual Review of Sociology 31:

56 148 Baron, Paul, and P. Sweezy, 1966, Monopoly Capital. New York: Monthly Review Press. Barrett, Richard E. and Martin King Whyte, 1982, Dependency Theory and Taiwan: Analysis of a Deviant Case. The American Journal of Sociology 87(5): Beck, Ulrich, 2000, What is Globalization? Cambridge [England] and Malden, MA: Polity Press. Becker, G., 1964, Human Capital. Chicago: The University of Chicago Press. Bell, Daniel, 1976, The Coming of Post-industrial Society: a Venture in Social Forecasting. New York: Basic Books. Bian, Yanjie and John R. Logan, 1996, Market Transition and the Persistence of Power: The Changing Stratification System in Urban China. American Sociological Review 61(5): Blau, Peter M. and Otis D. Duncan, 1967, The American Occupational Structure. New York: Free Press. Block, Fred, 1990, Postindustrial Possibilities: A Critique of Economic Discourse. Berkeley: University of California Press. Bourdieu, Pierre, 1984, Distinction: A Social Critique of the Judgement of Taste. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. Bourdieu, Pierre, 1986 [1983], The Forms of Capital. Pp in Handbook of Theory and Research for the Sociology of Education, edited by John G. Richardson. Westport, CT: Greenwood Press. Bowles, Samuel and Herbert Gintis, 1975, Schooling in Capitalist America: Educational Reform and the Contradictions of Economic Life. New York: Basic Books.

57 Braverman, Harry, 1974, Labor and Monopoly Capital: the Degradation of Work in the Twentieth Century. New York: Monthly Review Press. Burawoy, Michael, 2005[1979], Manufacturing Consent: Changes in the Labor Process under Monopoly Capitalism. Chinese edition. Taipei: Socio Publish. Castells, Manuel, 2000a, The Rise of the Network Society. 2nd Ed. New York: Basil Blackwell. Castells, Manuel, 2000b, End of Millennium. 2nd Ed. New York: Basil Blackwell. Chan, Tak Wing and John H. Goldthorpe, 2007, Class and Status: The Conceptual Distinction and Its Empirical Relevance. American Sociological Review 72: Chang, Chin-fen and Paula England, 2009, Gender Inequality in Earnings in Industrialized East Asia. Paper presented at the Spring Meeting of RC28, International Sociological Association, Beijing, May Chu, C. Y. Cyrus, Yu Xie and Ruoh-rong Yu, 2007, Effects of Sibship Structure Revisited: Evidence from Intra-Family Resource Transfer in Taiwan. Sociology of Education 80: Collins, R. 1979, The Credential Society. New York: Academic. Deyo, Frederic C. (ed), 1987, The Political Economy of the New Asian Industrialism. Ithaca: Cornell University Press. Djilas, Milovan, 1983, The New Class: an Analysis of the Communist System. San Diego: Harcourt Brace Jovanovich. DiMaggio, Paul and John Mohr, 1985, Cultural Capital, Educational Attainment, and Marital Selection. The American Journal of Sociology

58 150 90(6): DiPrete, Thomas A., 2002, Life Course Risks, Mobility Regimes, and Mobility Consequences: A Comparison of Sweden, Germany, and the United States. The American Journal of Sociology 108(2): Edwards, R. C., 1979, Contested Terrain: the Transformation of the Workplace in the Twentieth Century. New York: Basic Books. Erikson, Robert and John H. Goldthorpe, 1992, The Constant Flux: A Study of Class Mobility in Industrial Societies. Oxford [England]: Clarendon Press; New York: Oxford University Press. Esping-Andersen, Gøsta, 1990, The Three Worlds of Welfare Capitalism. Oxford: Polity Press. Esping-Andersen, Gøsta, 1999, Social Foundations of Postindustrial Economies. New York: Oxford University Press. Featherman, David L. and Robert M. Hauser, 1978, Opportunity and Change. New York: Academic Press. Firebaugh G., 2003, The New Geography of Global Income Inequality. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. Giddens, Anthony, 1999, The Third Way: the Renewal of Social Democracy. Cambridge: Polity Press. Goldthorpe, John H., 2002, Globalisation and Social Class. West European Politics 25(3): Gorz, André, 1985, Paths to Paradise: On the Liberation from Work. Boston: South End Press. Gorz, André, 1994, Capitalism, Socialism, Ecology. London and New York: Verso.

59 Gouldner, Alvin, 1979, The Future of Intellectuals and the Rise of the New Class. London: Macmillan. Gray, John, 1998, False Dawn: the Delusions of Global Capitalism. New York: New Press. Haggard, Stephan, 1990, Pathways from the Periphery: The Politics of Growth in Newly Industrializing Countries. Ithaca: Cornell University Press. Hall, Peter A. and David Soskice (eds.), 2001, Varieties of Capitalism: the Institutional Foundations of Comparative Advantage. Oxford [England] and New York: Oxford University Press. Hamilton, Gary G. and Nicole Woolsey Biggart, 1988, Market, Culture, and Authority: A Comparative Analysis of Management and Organization in the Far East. The American Journal of Sociology Special Issue on Economic Sociology 94: S52-S94. Held, David, 1995, Democracy and the Global Order: From the Modern State to Cosmopolitan Governance. Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press. Hendrickx, J. and H. B. G. Ganzeboom, 1998, Occupational Status Attainment in the Netherlands, A Multinomial Logistic Analysis. European Sociological Review, 14: Hirst, Paul, and Grahame Thompson, 1999, Globalization in Question: The International Economy and the Possibilities of Governance. Second edition. Malden, MA: Polity Press. Hite, Amy Bellone, and Jocelyn S. Viterna, 2005, Gendering Class in Latin America: How Women Effect and Experience Change in the Class Structure. Latin American Research Review 40(2):

60 152 Hout, Michael, 1980, Mobility Tables. Beverly Hills: Sage Publications. Hout, Michael, Clem Brooks and Jeff Manza, 1995, Democratic Class Struggles in the United States, American Sociological Review 60: Hu, Alfred, Thung-hong Lin and Raymond Wong, 2009, Class and Ethnic Cleavages in Electoral Politics: Stability and Changes in Taiwan Since Paper presented at the Spring Meeting of RC28, International Sociological Association, Beijing, May Huber, Evelyne and John D. Stephens, 2001, Development and Crisis of the Welfare State: Parties and Policies in Global Markets. Chicago: The University of Chicago Press. Huntington, Samuel P., 1991, The Third Wave: Democratization in the Late Twentieth Century. Norman: University of Oklahoma Press. Johnson, Chalmers, 1982, MITI and the Japanese Miracle. Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press. Kerbo, Harold R., 2006, Social Stratification and Inequality: Class Conflict in Historical, Comparative, and Global Perspective. New York: McGraw- Hill. King, Lawrence Peter and Iván Szelényi, 2004, Theories of the New Class: Intellectuals and Power. Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press. Konrád, Gyorgy, and Ivan Szelényi, 1979, The Intellectuals on the Road to Class Power. New York: Harcourt Brace Jovanovich. Koo, Hagan, 1990, From Farm to Factory: Proletarianization in Korea. American Sociological Review 55 (5): Korpi, Walter, 1978, The Working Class in Welfare Capitalism: Work,

61 Unions, and Politics in Sweden. London: Routledge and Kegan Paul. Korpi, Walter, 1983, The Democratic Class Struggle. London: Routledge and Kegan Paul. Korpi, Walter and Joakim Palme, 2003, New Politics and Class Politics in the Context of Austerity and Globalization: Welfare State Regress in 18 Countries, The American Political Science Review 97(3): Leiulfsrud, Håkon, Ivano Bison and Heidi Jensberg, 2005, Social Class in Europe. In Department of Sociology & Political Science, Norwegian University of Technology and Science, Norway, and Department of Sociology and Social Research, University of Trento, Italy. nsd.uib.no/files/2003/ess1socialclassreport.pdf (Date Visited: April 4, 2006). Lin, Thung-hong, 2007, Globalization versus Classes: Class Structure and Income Inequality in Hong Kong, Paper Presented at the 9th Annual Meeting of the Hong Kong Sociological Association, Hong Kong, December 6-7. Lipset, Seymour Martin, 1981, Political Man: the Social Bases of Politics. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press. Liu, J. and A. Sakamoto, 2002, The Role of Schooling in Taiwan s Labor Market: Human Capital, Screening, or Credentialism? Taiwanese Journal of Sociology 29: Lukács, Georg, 1971, History and Class Consciousness: Studies in Marxist Dialectics. London: Merlin Press. Marx, Karl, 1977, Capital. New York: Vintage Books.

62 154 Marx, Karl and Fredrik Engels, 1998, The Communist Manifesto. London and New York: Verso. Milanovic, Branko, 2005, Worlds Apart: Measuring International and Global Inequality. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press. Miliband, Ralph, 1977, Marxism and Politics. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Moore, Barrington, Jr., 1966, Social Origins of Dictatorship and Democracy: Lord and Peasant in the Making of the Modern World. Boston: Beacon Press. Offe, Claus, 1984, Contradictions of the Welfare State. Cambridge: The MIT Press. Penn World Table 6.2, 2006, Penn World Table, PWT. In PWT, econ.upenn.edu/php_site/pwt62/pwt62_form.php (Data visited: April 25, 2008). Perrucci, Robert and Earl Wysong, 2003, The New Class Society: Goodbye American Dream? Lanham, MD: Rowman and Littlefield. Piore, Michael J. and Charles F. Sabel, 1984, The Second Industrial Divide. New York: Basic books. Popper, Karl R., 1991, Conjectures and Refutations: the Growth of Scientific Knowledge. London: Routledge. Portes, Alejandro and K. Hoffman, 2003, Latin American Class Structures: Their Composition and Change during the Neoliberal Era. Latin American Research Review 38(l): Reich, Robert B., 1991, The Work of Nations: Preparing Ourselves for 21st Century Capitalism. New York: A. A. Knopf.

63 Robinson, William, I., 2004, A Theory of Global Capitalism. Baltimore, MA: Johns Hopkins University Press. Roy, William G., 1984, Class Conflict and Social Change in Historical Perspective. Annual Review of Sociology 10: Rudra, Nita, 2002, Globalization and the Decline of the Welfare State in Less-Developed Countries. International Organization 56(2): Scruggs, Lyle and Peter Lange, 2002, Where Have All the Members Gone? Globalization, Institutions, and Union Density. The Journal of Politics 64(1): Skocpol, Theda, 1979, States and Social Revolutions: A Comparative Analysis of France, Russia, and China. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Szelényi, Iván, 1982, The Intelligentsia in the Class Structure of State- Socialist Societies. Pp. S287-S326 in Marxist Inquiries: Studies of Labor, Class, and States, edited by M Burawoy and T Skocpol. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. Szelényi, Szonja, 1987, Social Inequality and Party Membership: Patterns of Recruitment into the Hungarian Socialist Workers Party. The American Journal of Sociology 52(5): Thompson, E. P., 1963, The Making of the English Working Class. New York: Vintage Books. Thurow, Lester C., 1999, Building Wealth: the New Rules for Individuals, Companies, and Nations in a Knowledge-based Economy. New York, NY: Harper Business. Tilly, Charles, 1978, From Mobilization to Revolution. New York: McGraw- Hill.

64 156 Treiman, Donald J., 1977, Occupational Prestige in Comparative Perspective. New York: Academic Press. Trotsky, Leon, 1973, Writings of Leon Trotsky, edited by Naomi Allen et al, New York: Pathfinder Press. Tsai, Ming-Chang, Gang-Hua Fan, Hsin-Huang Michael Hsiao and Hong- Zen Wang, 2008, Profiling Middle-Classes in Today s Taiwan. Manuscript. Tsai, Shu-Ling and Yossi Shavit, 2007, Taiwan: High Education Expansion and Equality of Educational Opportunity. Pp in Stratification in Higher Education: A Comparative Study, edited by Yossi Shavit, Richard Arum and Adam Gramoran. Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press. US Census Bureau, 2009, Table 572. Civilian Labor Force and Participation Rates. In (Data visited: May 8, 2009). Wade, Robert, 2004[1990], Governing the Market: Economic Theory and the Role of Government in East Asian Industrialization. Princeton and Oxford: Princeton University Press. Walton, John, 1987, Theory and Research on Industrialization. Annual Review of Sociology 13: Wang, Hong-zen, 2002, Class Structures and Social Mobility in Taiwan in the Initial Post-war Period. The China Journal 48: Weber, Max, 1958, From Max Weber: Essays in Sociology. translated by H. H. Gerth and C. Wright Mills. New York: Oxford University Press. Wong, Raymond Sin-Kwok, 1996, The Social Composition of the

65 Czechoslovak and Hungarian Communist Parties in the 1980s. Social Force 75: World Bank, The East Asian Miracle: Economic Growth and Public Policy. Washington DC: The World Bank. Wright, Erik Olin, 1985, Classes. London: Verso. Wright, Erik Olin, 1997, Class Counts. London: Verso. Wright, Erik Olin and Bill Martin, 1987, The Transformation of the American Class Structure, The American Journal of Sociology 93(1): Wright, Erik Olin and Donmoon Cho, 1992, The Relative Permeability of Class Boundaries to Cross-Class Friendships: A Comparative Study of the United States, Canada, Sweden, and Norway. American Sociological Review 57(1): Wright, Erik Olin and Joachim Singelmann, 1982, Proletarianization in the Changing American Class Structure. The American Journal of Sociology, Supplement: Marxist Inquiries: Studies of Labor, Class, and States 88: S176-S209. Wu, Xiaogang, 2002, Work Units and Income Inequality: the Effect of Market Transition in Urban China. Social Force 80(3): Xie, Yu and Xiaogang Wu, 2008, Danwei Profitability and Earnings Inequality in Urban China. The China Quarterly [in press]. Yu, Wei-hsin, 2009, Gendered Trajectories: Women, Work and Social Changes in Japan and Taiwan. Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press. Yu, Wei-hsin and Kuo-hsien Su, 2004, On one s own: self-employment activity in Taiwan. Pp in The Reemergence of Self-

66 158 Employment: A Comparative Study of Self-Employment Dynamics and Social Inequality, edited by R. Arum and W. Müller. Princeton: Princeton University Press. Yu, Wei-hsin and Kuo-hsien Su, 2008, Intergenerational Mobility Patterns in Taiwan: The Case of a Rapidly Industrializing Economy. Forthcoming in Social Stratification and Social Mobility in Late-Industrializing Countries, edited by Hiroshi Ishida. The 2005 SSM Research Series, Volume 14, Sendai, Japan: The 2005 SSM Research Committee.