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1 Chapter 11 Nutrition in Humans Summary Bk2 Ch.11 Nutrition in Humans/1 Table 1: The main processes of nutrition (Section 11.1; Fig. 11.1) Ingestion Digestion Absorption Assimilation Egestion Food is taken into the alimentary canal through the mouth Food is gradually broken down into simple and smaller molecules that can be absorbed by the body Uptake of small, simple and soluble molecules through the epithelium of the alimentary canal into the bloodstream The absorbed food is transported via blood to body cells for various purposes, e.g. building up new tissues The undigested materials are removed from the body as faeces Table 2: The structure of a tooth (Section 11.2; Fig. 11.3) External structure Internal structure Structure Crown Neck Root Enamel Dentine Pulp cavity Cement Periodontal membrane Feature The part that is exposed above the gum A narrow region between the root and the crown The part that is embedded in the jaw bone The outermost, hardest layer of the crown A dead layer, contains calcium salts Forms a hard biting surface and protects the tooth from mechanical damage The middle layer of the tooth A bone-like substance Has fine channels of living cytoplasm running through The innermost part of the tooth Contains blood vessels to supply nutrients and oxygen Contains nerve to produce sensations of temperature, pressure and pain A thin layer of substance covering the dentine in the root Attached to the periodontal membrane and allows to fix the tooth on jaw bone A fibrous membrane Allows the tooth to move slightly and absorb the shock when biting hard food materials 1

2 Table 3: Type and function of teeth (Section 11.2; Figs and 11.6) Bk2 Ch.11 Nutrition in Humans/2 Type of teeth Location Feature Function Incisor At the front of the jaw Sharp and chisel-like edge Cutting food into small pieces Canine Beside the incisors Sharp and pointed Piercing and tearing food Premolar At the sides of the jaws Large and flattened top with cusps Molar At the back of the jaws, behind premolars Similar to premolars, but are larger in size Crushing and grinding food Crushing and grinding food Table 4: Dentition and dental formula (Section. 11.2) Dentition The number and arrangement of different types of teeth in a mammal Dental formula Shows the number and types of teeth on one side of the upper and lower jaws Table 5: Milk dentition and permanent dentition (Section. 11.2) Milk dentition Permanent dentition Dental formula 212/ /2123 Total number of teeth Table 6: Tooth problems (Section 11.2) Tooth decay (Fig ) Periodontal disease (Fig ) Cause Consumed a lot of candies, sugary snacks and sugary drinks The accumulation of the plaque in the neck region of the teeth Process Formation of invisible, sticky plaque on the tooth surface Bacteria in the plaque feed on the food trapped on or between the teeth Bacteria breaks down sugars and produces acids that dissolve away the enamel to form small holes The acids will eventually attack the dentine and pulp cavity and casue pain The accumulated plaque will gradually change into calculus Bacteria will produce toxins around the gum and cause inflammation The disease may spread to the roots and the tooth may become loosen and may finally fall out 2

3 Bk2 Ch.11 Nutrition in Humans/3 Table 7: Oral health (Section 11.2) Method Have a balanced diet to obtain enough calcium, phosphate and vitamin D Avoid too much sugary foods Clean your teeth with toothpaste containing fluoride Brush your teeth after meal or at least twice a day Brush your teeth in a correct way Choose a toothbrush that is not too hard and not too soft Develop the habit of using dental floss after meal Have regular dental check-up Purpose Necessary for maintaining healthy teeth Prevent sugars from broken down to acids by bacteria Strengthen the teeth and prevent tooth decay Effectively remove the plaque on teeth surfaces and food debris trapped between teeth Help to identify any signs of tooth problems and allow to save the tooth Table 8: The composition of human digestive system (Section 11.3; Fig ) Components Alimentary canal Glands Mouth pharynx oesophagus stomach small intestine (duodenum and ileum) large intestine (colon, rectum, caecum and appendix) anus Salivary glands, gastric glands, intestinal glands, pancreas and liver Table 9: The structure of the alimentary canal for the movement of food (Section 11.3; Fig ) Structure Epithelium of alimentary canal produce mucus Circular and longitudinal muscles Function/Action Acts as lubricant to faciliate the passsage of food Protects the inner surafce from the action of digestive enzymes The rhythmic contracton and relaxation of the muscles able to push food forward (peristalsis) 3

4 Bk2 Ch.11 Nutrition in Humans/4 Table 10: Types of human digestion (Section 11.4) Mechanical digestion Chemical digestion Process The physical processes in which food substances are broken down mechanically into small pieces The processes in which large and complex molecules are broken down chemically into simple and smaller molecules (Fig ) Action Chewing action of the teeth Churning action of the stomach Involves secretion of digestive enzymes from salivary glands, gastric glands, pancreas and intestinal glands Carbohydrases: digest carbohydrates into simple sugars Lipases: digest fats into fatty acids and glycerol Proteases: digest proteins into amino acids Table 11: Swallowing of food (Section 11.4; Fig ) Food is chewed by teeth and mixed with saliva in the mouth The tongue rolls the food into a soft bolus which is ready to be swallowed Process The tongue rises upwards and backwards and forces the food bolus to enter the pharynx The soft palate moves up to prevent the food from entering the nasal cavity The larynx moves up so that the glottis is covered by the epiglottis The food bolus then passes along the oesophasgus to the stomach 4

5 Bk2 Ch.11 Nutrition in Humans/5 Table 12: Characteristic features of different parts of alimentary canal for digestion (Section 11.4) Mouth Stomach (Figs and 11.34) Liver (Fgi ) Small intestine Characteristic feature The cutting and grinding action of the teeth Saliva passes into the mouth through salivary duct A large muscular sac with the upper part connects to oesophagus and the lower part conncets to duodenum The entrance is guarded by the cardiac sphincter The exit is guarded by the pyloric sphincter Thick layer of mucus to cover its inner surface Vigorous waves of peristaltic contractions (churning movement) Produce bile Food is constantly churned by peristalitic movement Function Breaks down large food particles into smaller pieces Increases surface area of food substances for the action of digestive enzymes Water in saliva moistens and softens the food Mucus in saliva binds small food pieces together and lubricates the food during swallowing Storing food: fluid food usually stays much shorter than solid food Controls the entrance of food from oesophagaus Controls the exit of food to duodenum Protects against the action of the digestive juice and acid Mixes the food thoroughly with the gastric juice to break down food mechanically Bile, which is stored in gall bladder, responsibles to speed up the digestion of fats Contains bile pigment which is the waste products formed from the breakdown of old red blood cells and gives the faeces a green or brown colour Mixes the food with the digestive juices The food is finally digested into simple molecules that are ready for absorption 5

6 Table 13: Digestion of food in different parts of alimentary canal (Section 11.4) Digestive juice Glands of production Enzyme or chemical substance Bk2 Ch.11 Nutrition in Humans/6 Action Mouth Saliva Salivary glands Amylase Starch maltose Stomach Small intestine Gastric juice Bile Pancreatic juice Intestinal juice Gastric glands Liver Pancreas Intestinal glands Protease Protein peptide chains Hydrochloric acid (not enzyme) Bile salt (not enzyme) Alkaline salts In young chlidren: Renin insoluble proteins Provides an acidic medium for proteases Emulsifies fats into small oil droplets to increase the surface area for the action of lipases Neutralize the acidic chyme coming from the stomach Amylase Starch maltose Lipase Fats fatty acids and glycerol Protease Protein Peptides and amino acids Alkaline salts Neutralize the acidic chyme coming from the stomach Carbohydrases Double sugars simple sugars Maltose Sucrose e.g. glucose Proteases Peptide chains amino acid Alkaline salts Neutralize the acidic chyme coming from the stomach 6

7 Table 14: Absorption of the digested food substances in the small intestine Long and highly folded (Section 11.5; Figs and 11.42) Bk2 Ch.11 Nutrition in Humans/7 Structure Function Absorbed material Inner surface with numerous tiny finger-like projections (villi) Peristaltic movement churns the food One-cell thick epithelium lining of villi A dense mass of blood capillaries surrounded the lacteal in the villus Increases the surface area for absorption Brings the digested food into close contact with the villi for absorption Allows food substances to pass through rapidly Allows the absorbed food transport rapidly away from the site of absorption 1. Water soluble substances (e.g. simple sugars, amino acids and minerals) 2. Fatty acids and glycerol recombine in the epithelium of villi to form fine fat droplets 3. Water and other substances (e.g. water soluble vitamins) Table 15: Absorption of the digested food substances in the stomach and large intestine Stomach Large intestine (Section 11.5) Food substances absorbed A small quantity of simple food substances e.g. water, minerals, alcohol and simple sugars The remaining water and some minerals from the waste materials are absorbed at a very low rate Table 16: Transport of food substances into the body cells (Section 11.6; Fig ) Simple sugars and amino aids Fats Carry to liver via the hepatic portal vein Some of the food substances are stored in the liver and some are processed and returned to the blood stream via the hepatic vein Carried by lymph vessels (leateal in the small intestine) and eventually drained into the blood stream near the neck region 7

8 Bk2 Ch.11 Nutrition in Humans/8 Table 17: The fate of absorbed food substances (Section 11.6) Glucose Fats Amino acids Provide energy to drive the cellular processes that are essential to life Excess glucose may be stored in the liver and skeletal muscles as glycogen or converted to fats and stored under skin Provides energy for various cellular activities Form cell membrane and other cellular structures Excess fats may be deposited under the skin and around internal organs Build up into proteins for growth, repair of body tissues and formation of enzymes and hormones Excess amino acids are deaminated in the liver and undergo several processes to form carbohydrates and urea Carbohydrates can be used for energy release or storage Urea is excreted in the urine Table 18: The role of liver in relation to food assimilation (Section 11.6) Metabolism Production Storage Regulate blood glucose level Function After meal, the liver converts the excess glucose into glycogen and stored in the liver During fasting: the liver will convert glycogen back into glucose for various use Deaminate the excess amino acids and the products are subsequently converted into carbohydrates and urea Bile Iron salts Vitamins A and D Emulsifying fats into small oil droplets Alkaline salts to neutralize the acidic chyme from the stomach and provide an alkaline medium for the enzymes in the small intestine Formation of new red blood cells For normal body functioning Detoxification Convert toxin into harmless substances Table 19: The process of egestion (Section 11.7) Process The undigested and unabsorbed food materials, bile pigments, cells from the walls of the large intestine and a large number of living and dead bacteria formed faeces The relaxation of the anal sphincter for the removal of wastes from the body when the person defaecates 8

9 Bk2 Ch.11 Nutrition in Humans/9 Glossary absorption 吸收作用 99, 128 assimilation 同化作用 99, 134 digestion 消化作用 99, 117 egestion 排遺作用 83, 99, 137 the uptake of digested (soluble) food and water through the walls of gut into the bloodstream process of absorbing and building up products of digestion into new complex body substances the process by which food is broken down into simpler molecules by the action of digestive juices the process of removing faeces or indigestible food from the body ingestion 攝食 99 the taking in of food from the environment into the alimentary canal alimentary canal 消化道 100, 114 a tube passing from the mouth cavity to anus, inside which digestion and absorption of food take place crown 齒冠 101 exposed part of the teeth above the gum gum 齒齦 101 tissue surrounding the neck and root region of a tooth jaw 顎 101 the bony structure forming part of the mouth in vertebrate, bearing teeth, divided into the upper jaw and the lower jaw neck 齒頸 101 a narrow region between the root and the crown in a tooth root 齒根 101 the part of the tooth embedded in the jaw bone cement 牙骨質 102 a hard bone-like substance that covers the roots of the teeth dentine 牙本質 102 a hard, bone-like substance forming the inner part of a tooth, beneath the enamel enamel 琺瑯質 102 the hard, white covering of a tooth periodontal membrane 牙周膜 102 a fibrous membrane covering the teeth 經腸壁把已消化 ( 可溶 ) 的食物和水攝入至血管內 消化物在吸收進身體細胞後, 形成身體的複雜物質的過程 食物經消化液的作用, 分解成較簡單的分子的過程 從體內排走糞便或未能消化的食物的過程 從環境中吸入食物至消化道內 從口腔延伸至肛門, 內裡進行食物的消化與吸收的管道 牙齒露出於齒齦以上的部分 包圍齒頸和齒根部分的組織 由兩塊骨 ( 上顎骨和下顎骨 ) 組成的骨狀構造, 形成脊椎動物的口的一部分 牙齒的齒根與齒冠之間的狹窄區域 牙齒嵌在顎骨裏的部分 覆蓋物質 牙根的堅硬骨狀 牙齒內部琺瑯質以下的堅固骨狀物質 覆蓋牙齒的白色堅硬物質 覆蓋牙齒周圍的纖維膜 9

10 10 Bk2 Ch.11 Nutrition in Humans/10 pulp cavity 髓腔 102 the central cavity of a tooth containing blood vessels and nerves canine 犬齒 103 sharp, dagger-like tooth at each side of the jaws of some mammals, for killing preys and tearing flesh incisor 門齒 103 chisel-shaped tooth at the front of the jaws for biting and cutting food milk teeth 乳齒 103 the first set of teeth produced by mammals molar 臼齒 103 large tooth with four cusps and two or three roots, situated at the back of the jaw permanent teeth 恒齒 103 teeth formed in the jaw in mammal that replace the milk dentition premolar 前臼齒 103 large tooth with 2 cusps and 1 or 2 roots situated behind the canine. It is used for grinding food wisdom teeth 智慧齒 104 the last molars to appear in man at around the age of 21 dental formula 齒式 105 a simple method of describing the teeth of mammals, using the initial letters for incisor, canine, premolar and molar, and the number of each kind of tooth in the upper and lower jaws on one side only dentition 齒系 105 the types and arrangement of the teeth in a mammal carnassial teeth 裂齒 106 tooth modified to shear flesh and crack bone; found particularly in carnivore carnivore 肉食性動物 106 an animal that feed on the body parts of other animals, is a kind of heterotroph; examples are dogs and lions diastema 齒虛位 106 the space between two type of teeth, present in some herbivores herbivore 草食性動物 106 animal which feed on plants only, is a kind of heterotroph; examples are sheep, rabbits, cows 牙齒中心內部, 含有血管和神經 部分哺乳動物口腔內, 位處上下顎兩邊的尖銳成刀形的牙齒, 用以捕殺獵物和撕開肉塊 兩顎前端成鑿形的牙齒, 用以咀嚼和切割食物 哺乳動物長出的第一組牙齒 有 4 個尖突及 2 或 3 顆齒根的牙齒, 位處顎的後方 哺乳動物的顎長出以代替乳齒的牙齒 牙齒體積大, 有 2 個尖突及 1 或 2 顆齒根, 位於犬齒後面, 用以磨碎食物 人類最後長出的臼齒, 約於 21 歲左右出現 描述哺乳動物牙齒的簡單方法, 只記錄側面上下顎在各種牙齒的數目 齒式以 i c pm 和 m 分別代表門齒 犬齒 前臼齒和臼齒 哺乳動物的牙齒種類與排列 肉食性動物特有的牙齒, 具有適應特徵以切入肉類, 及有助咬碎骨 以其他動物的身體部分作為食物的動物, 屬異養生物, 例子有狗和獅子 兩種牙齒之間的空位, 在一些草食性動物中出現 只以植物作為食物的動物, 屬異養生物, 例子有羊 牛和兔

11 Bk2 Ch.11 Nutrition in Humans/11 omnivore 雜食性動物 106 animal that feed on both animals and plants, is a kind of heterotroph; examples are humans and mice tooth decay 蛀牙 106 also called dental cavities or dental caries, is the destruction of the enamel of a tooth, due to the action of bacteria that live in plaque, using sugary substances from food particles to produce acid and the acids dissolve away the enamel plague 牙菌膜 109 an invisible, sticky film on the tooth surface, containing bacteria and dissolved food substances calculus 牙石 110 a hard yellowish deposit on the teeth, consisting of organic secretions and food particles, which may lead to gum diseases and tooth decay inflammation 發炎 110 a complex reaction of the body to response to damage of its cells and blood vessels, symptoms of include redness, swelling, heat, pain and even malfunctioning of the area, due to release of plasma and white blood cells into the site of inflammation to kill pathogens periodontal disease 牙周病 110 see gum disease fluoride 氟化物 112 a mineral that helps to make bone and teeth stronger and prevent tooth decay by replacing the hydroxyl groups in the structural materials in bones and teeth dental floss 牙線 113 a waxed or unwaxed thread used to remove food particles and plaque from between the teeth and under the gums alimentary canal 消化道 100, 114 a tube passing from the mouth cavity to anus, inside which digestion and absorption of food take place 以動物和植物作為食物的動物, 屬異養生物, 例子有人 鼠 又稱齲齒, 成因是在牙齒表面的牙垢膜中, 細菌把糖分解成酸, 酸則把琺瑯質溶解, 使琺瑯質逐步受侵蝕 牙齒表面一層肉眼看不見而帶有黏性的薄膜, 當中含有細菌和溶解的食物物質 牙齒上堅硬呈黃色的沉積物, 內含有機分泌物和食物粒子, 可能會導致齒齦病和蛀牙 是身體對應細胞或血管組織受損的一系列複雜的反應, 發炎的部位會有更多血漿和白血球滲出, 以殺滅細菌, 因而導致的主要症狀包括發炎的部位變得紅腫 發熱 痛楚 甚至失去正常的功能 --- 一種礦物質, 透過取代骨和牙齒結構物質中的氫氧基, 使牙齒結構更強壯堅固, 可減低蛀牙的機會 有蠟質或非蠟質兩種, 用以移除牙縫間及齒齦底部的食物碎屑及牙菌膜 從口腔延伸至肛門, 內裡進行食物的消化與吸收的管道 11

12 Bk2 Ch.11 Nutrition in Humans/12 anus 肛門 114, 137 appendix 闌尾 114, 131 caecum 盲腸 114, 131 colon 結腸 114, 131 digestive system the posterior opening of the digestive tract through which indigested substances are eliminated from the body a sac-like outgrowth at the tip of the caecum in certain mammals a blind-ended branch of the intestine at the junction between the small and large intestine, concerned with cellulose digestion in herbivores part of the large intestine, absorbs water from the faeces 消化系統 114 a system in the body, make up of organs and tissues that are related to the digestion of food into simple molecules duodenum 十二指腸 114, 125 gastric gland 胃腺 114, 121 anterior part of the small intestine of vertebrate an exocrine gland in the wall of stomach, for the secretion of gastric juice gland 腺體 114 refer to a cell or group of cells which secretes specific chemicals such as enzymes or hormones ileum 迴腸 114, 127, 129 intestinal gland 腸腺 114, 126 large intestine 大腸 114, 131 liver 肝臟 114, 126 oesophagus 食道 114, 120 posterior part of the small intestine, where digestion is completed and absorption takes place gland lying the wall of the duodenum, secretes intestinal juice for the digestion of food latter part of the alimentary canal of mammals, including the caecum, appendix, colon and rectum the largest digestive gland of mammals; its duct carries secretions into the small intestine for digestive function; it also produces bile and stores glycogen muscular tube through which food passes from the mouth cavity to the stomach 消化道末端的開口, 未被消化的食物經此排出體外 在一些哺乳動物中, 從盲腸尖端伸出的囊狀構這 腸內小腸與大腸交界間的分支, 另一端是盡頭, 草食性動物進食的纖維素於此被消化 大腸的一部分, 負責從糞便中吸取水分 體內一個系統, 由負責進行消化作用的器官和組織組成, 以把食物分解至簡單的分子 脊椎動物小腸的前部分 在胃壁中的外分泌腺, 負責分泌胃液 指一個或一組分泌特定化合物的細胞, 分泌物的例子包括與激素等 小腸後端的部分, 是完成消化作用和進行吸收的位置 十二指腸壁上的腺體, 分泌腸液, 以消化食物 哺乳動物的消化道中較後的一部分, 包括盲腸 闌尾 結腸和直腸 哺乳動物體內最大的消化腺 ; 經導管將分泌物引入小腸, 以進行消化作用, 亦負責製造膽汁, 及儲存糖原 食物自口腔傳到胃部的肌肉管道 12

13 Bk2 Ch.11 Nutrition in Humans/13 pancreas 胰臟 114, 126 pharynx 咽 114, 149 rectum 直腸 114, 137 salivary gland 唾腺 114, 120 small intestine 小腸 114, 125 stomach 胃 114, 121 an organ situated between the stomach and the duodenum, secretes pancreatic juice through a duct into the duodenum, and insulin into the bloodstream the part of the alimentary canal of vertebrate which leads from the back of the mouth to the opening to oesophagus the last part of the large intestine, for storing faeces temporarily, opening to the outside of the body through the anus ducted gland in the head that secretes saliva which contains ptyalin; three pairs in man and four pairs in rabbit; each gland is connected to the oral cavity by a duct a portion of the alimentary canal leading from the stomach to the large intestine, divided into the duodenum and ileum; functions in the digestion and absorption of food an organ in the digestive system, in which the food is churned up and broken down by enzymes under acidic medium epithelium 上皮 115 a thin layer of cells covering and protecting the free surfaces of an internal or external structure lubricant 潤滑劑 115 a substance that reduces friction between moving parts mucus 黏液 115 a slimy fluid secreted by the mucous gland, for lubrication, protection or removal of dust particles circular muscle 環肌 116, 231 longitudinal muscle a kind of muscle in the wall of the alimentary canal; it contracts and relaxes to induce peristalsis 縱肌 116 a kind of muscle running along the wall of the alimentary canal 位處胃部與十二指腸之間的器官 胰臟經導管分泌胰液至十二指腸, 分泌胰島素至血管 脊椎動物消化道的一部分, 範圍由口的後方一直至食道的開口部分 大腸最後的部分, 經肛門通往體外, 作用是暫時儲存糞便 位處頭部的外分泌腺, 分泌出的唾液含有唾液澱粉 ; 人類有三對唾腺, 而兔子則有四對, 各條腺體經唾管通進口腔 消化道中從胃部到大腸的部分, 分為十二指腸和迴腸, 負責消化和吸收食物 消化系統的器官之一, 當中的食物在酸性的介質下被攪拌, 並經的作用分解 薄細胞層, 覆蓋並保護體內或體外構造的表面 在活動時, 減低兩部分之間的摩擦的物質 由黏液腺分泌出來的黏性液體, 有潤滑和保護的功能, 並能把進入身體的塵埃粒子移走 消化道壁的一種肌肉, 其收縮與鬆弛動作產生蠕動 消化道壁的一種肌肉, 肌肉沿消化道成平衡地延伸 13

14 Bk2 Ch.11 Nutrition in Humans/14 peristalsis 蠕動 82, 116 waves of smooth muscle contraction in smooth muscles of the tubular digestive tract, that serves to propel the contents of the tract in one direction carbohydrase 碳水化合物 117 an enzyme which catalyse the breakdown of larger, more complex carbohydrate molecules into simple sugars, secreted by the pancreas in human chemical digestion 化學性消化作用 digestion 消化作用 99, a collective term referring to the processes in which large and complex food molecules are broken down into simpler and smaller molecules; the food substances are changed chemically by the action of digestive enzymes the process by which food is broken down into simpler molecules by the action of digestive juices lipase 脂肪 117 an enzyme produced in the small intestine which catalyze the breakdown of fat and oil into glycerol and fatty acids mechanical digestion 機械性消化作用 117 refers to the physical processes in which food substances are broken down mechanically into smaller pieces; these include the chewing action of the teeth and the churning action of the stomach protease 蛋白 117 enzyme that catalyse the splitting proteins bolus 食團 120 a ball of chewed food, mixed with saliva, formed at the tongue, then swallowed oesophagus 食道 120 muscular tube through which food passes from the mouth cavity to the stomach saliva 唾液 120 liquid secreted into the mouth cavity by three pairs of salivary glands, in human contains proteins and amylase and is slightly alkaline 管狀的消化道平滑肌的收縮, 製造出波浪式的移動動作, 以把內裏的物質向一個方向推進 催化較大且複雜的碳水化合物分子分解成單糖的, 在人體是由胰臟分泌的 一個集合名詞, 指大型複雜的食物分子, 透過消化的作用, 發生化學性轉變, 而分解成細小而簡單的分子的過程 食物經消化液的作用, 分解成較簡單的分子的過程 由小腸製造的, 催化脂肪和油分解成甘油和脂肪酸的反應 食物被機械性地分成小塊的物理過程, 包括牙齒的咀嚼動作和胃部的攪拌動作 能分解蛋白質的 食物經咀嚼後與唾液混合的球狀物, 在舌頭上形成後吞嚥進入食道 食物自口腔傳到胃部的肌肉管道 從三對唾腺中分泌進口腔的液體, 人類的唾液中含有蛋白質及唾液澱粉, 呈弱鹼性 14

15 15 Bk2 Ch.11 Nutrition in Humans/15 salivary amylase 唾液澱粉 120 an enzyme present in saliva which is responsible for digesting starch to maltose and dextrins (a group of soluble polysaccharide) salivary duct 唾管 120 is the duct passes saliva into the mouth cavity salivary gland 唾腺 114, 120 ducted gland in the head that secretes saliva which contains ptyalin; three pairs in man and four pairs in rabbit; each gland is connected to the oral cavity by a duct soft palate 軟 120 the roof of the mouth of a vertebrate; raise upwards during swallowing to close the passage to the nasal cavity swallow 吞嚥 120 the action to cause (food or drink, for example) to pass through the mouth and throat into the oesophagus trachea 氣管 120, 149 cardiac sphincter a tube connecting the throat to the lungs 賁門括約肌 121 a ring of smooth muscle fibres at the junction of the esophagus and stomach, controlling the enter of food into the stomach epiglottis 會厭 121, 150 gastric gland 胃腺 114, 121 a flap-like structure protecting the opening of the larynx in mammals, so that food and drink will not get into the trachea during swallowing an exocrine gland in the wall of stomach, for the secretion of gastric juice gastric juice 胃液 121 an acidic digestive juice containing enzymes and hydrochloric acid secreted by the gastric gland, acts on foods to break down proteins glottis 聲門 121, 150 larynx 喉 121, 149 is the opening leading to the trachea, situated at the back of the pharynx the organ to produce voice in most vertebrates, which is located between the trachea and the base of the tongue 唾液中的一種, 負責把澱粉消化成麥芽糖和糊精 ( 一組可溶的多糖 ) 把唾液傳送至口腔的導管 位處頭部的外分泌腺, 分泌出的唾液含有唾液澱粉 ; 人類有三對唾腺, 而兔子則有四對, 各條腺體經唾管通進口腔 脊椎動物口腔的頂部 ; 吞嚥時軟上升, 使通往鼻腔的通道封閉 使物質 ( 如食物和飲品 ) 經由口腔與喉嚨傳送進食道的動作 連接喉嚨與肺部的管道 位處食道與胃交界的環狀平滑纖維肌, 控制進入胃的食物分量 瓣狀結構, 保護哺乳動物在喉的入口處, 吞嚥時防止食物和飲品進入支氣管 在胃壁中的外分泌腺, 負責分泌胃液 內含和氫氯酸的酸性消化液, 由胃腺所分泌, 在胃內產生作用時主要把食物中的蛋白質分解 支氣管的入口, 位處咽的後面 大部分脊椎動物的發聲器官, 位處支氣管與舌頭的底部之間

16 Bk2 Ch.11 Nutrition in Humans/16 pyloric sphincter 幽門括約肌 121 a ring of smooth muscle fibres around the opening of the stomach into the duodenum stomach 胃 114, 121 an organ in the digestive system, in which the food is churned up and broken down by enzymes under acidic medium chyme 食糜 122 a paste-like form of food formed after partial digestion in the stomach, to be passed into the duodenum rennin 凝乳 122 a digestive enzyme secreted in the gastric juice of infants that coagulates milk protein thus aids digestion antibiotic 抗生素 124 a substance produced by organisms, usually bacteria and fungi, which is toxic to other organisms. It is used in medicine to kill pathogens ulcer 潰瘍 124 a lesion of the skin or a mucous membrane, such as the lining of the stomach or duodenum, that is accompanied by formation of pus and damage and death of surrounding tissue, usually resulting from inflammation bile duct 膽管 125 a duct leaving the gallbladder and joining the pancreatic duct, directs the flow of bile (produced in the liver and stored in the gallbladder) to the duodenum bile pigment 膽色素 125 pigments in bile juice, excretory products produced by the breakdown of haemogoblin; bile salt 膽鹽 125 salts in bile juice, exerts a detergent effect to emulsify fat in the lumen of the intestine that aids the digestion of fat duodenum 十二指腸 114, 125 anterior part of the small intestine of vertebrate 環狀的平滑肌纖維, 包圍胃部與十二指腸之間的開口 消化系統的器官之一, 當中的食物在酸性的介質下被攪拌, 並經的作用分解 食物在胃內局部消化後所形成的糊狀物, 其後會傳送至十二指腸 一種嬰兒體內分泌的胃液中 hi9 消化, 使乳蛋白凝固, 有助把乳蛋白消化 生物 ( 通常指細菌與真菌 ) 所製造的物質, 對其他生物有害, 現常用於藥物中以消滅病原體 皮膚或黏膜受損, 隨之形成膿, 而四周的組織亦壞死的情況, 通常是因發炎引起 潰瘍的例子包括胃與十二指腸內壁的黏膜受損 延伸至膽囊的小管, 與胰管匯合, 再連接至十二指腸, 讓由肝製造並儲藏於膽囊內的膽汁流進十二指腸 膽汁內的色素, 是分解血紅蛋白所得的排泄物 膽汁內的鹽, 具清潔劑的效能, 負責在小腸內乳化脂肪, 以促進脂肪的消化 脊椎動物小腸的前部分 16

17 17 Bk2 Ch.11 Nutrition in Humans/17 emulsify 乳化 125 to break down a substance into emulsion or fine suspension, the surface area of the substance will be increased; in the intestine, fat is emulsified by the action of bile that aid the digestion process gall bladder 膽囊 125 a small sac which temporary stores bile secreted by the liver in vertebrates; later empties the bile into the duodenum through a duct small intestine 小腸 114, 125 intestinal gland 腸腺 114, 126 liver 肝臟 114, 126 pancreas 胰臟 114, 126 a portion of the alimentary canal leading from the stomach to the large intestine, divided into the duodenum and ileum; functions in the digestion and absorption of food gland lying the wall of the duodenum, secretes intestinal juice for the digestion of food the largest digestive gland of mammals; its duct carries secretions into the small intestine for digestive function; it also produces bile and stores glycogen an organ situated between the stomach and the duodenum, secretes pancreatic juice through a duct into the duodenum, and insulin into the bloodstream pancreatic duct 胰管 126 a duct leading from the pancreas, joining the bile duct before entering the duodenum chyle 乳糜 127 the completely digested form of food which is a white emulsion in the small intestine; absorbed by the villi into the bloodstream ileum 迴腸 114, 127, 129 posterior part of the small intestine, where digestion is completed and absorption takes place lactase 乳糖 127 an enzyme in intestinal juice which catalyze the breakdown of lactose into glucose and galactose maltase 麥芽糖 127 an enzyme catalyze the breakdown of a maltose molecule into two glucose molecules 分解物質成乳劑或粒子微小的懸濁液, 物質的表面積因而增大 ; 在腸道內, 脂肪因膽汁的作用, 乳化成小滴, 促進消化脂肪的過程 脊椎動物體內的細小袋狀構造, 暫時儲存由肝臟所分泌的膽汁, 其後膽囊再把膽汁排進十二指腸 消化道中從胃部到大腸的部分, 分為十二指腸和迴腸, 負責消化和吸收食物 十二指腸壁上的腺體, 分泌腸液, 以消化食物 哺乳動物體內最大的消化腺 ; 經導管將分泌物引入小腸, 以進行消化作用, 亦負責製造膽汁, 及儲存糖原 位處胃部與十二指腸之間的器官 胰臟經導管分泌胰液至十二指腸, 分泌胰島素至血管 從胰臟伸出的導管, 與膽管接合後再進入十二指腸 食物被完全消化後, 在小腸內所形成的白色乳狀物, 隨後被絨毛吸收進血液 小腸後端的部分, 是完成消化作用和進行吸收的位置 一種腸液中的, 催化乳糖分解成葡萄糖和半乳糖的反應 催化麥芽糖分解成兩個葡萄糖分子的反應的

18 Bk2 Ch.11 Nutrition in Humans/18 sucrase 蔗糖 127 enzyme that catalyzes the breakdown of sucrose into glucose and fructose absorption 吸收作用 99, 128 lactose intolerance the uptake of digested (soluble) food and water through the walls of gut into the bloodstream 乳糖不耐症 128 the lack of lactase in the small intestine in some adults; resulting in diarrhoea after drinking milk ileum 迴腸 114, 127, 129 posterior part of the small intestine, where digestion is completed and absorption takes place villus (pl. villi) 絨毛 129 minute finger-like projections from the intestinal wall, greatly increases the surface area for the absorption of nutrients lacteal 乳糜管 130 lymph vessel in a villus of intestinal wall of mammals lymph 淋巴 83, 130, 216 fluids drained by lymph vessels from intercellular spaces appendicitis 闌尾炎 131 inflammation of the appendix, caused by an infection behind a blockage of the appendix, symptoms include pain in the lower right portion of the abdomen, vomiting and loss of appepite appendix 闌尾 114, 131 caecum 盲腸 114, 131 colon 結腸 114, 131 large intestine 大腸 114, 131 a sac-like outgrowth at the tip of the caecum in certain mammals a blind-ended branch of the intestine at the junction between the small and large intestine, concerned with cellulose digestion in herbivores part of the large intestine, absorbs water from the faeces latter part of the alimentary canal of mammals, including the caecum, appendix, colon and rectum 把蔗糖分解成葡萄糖和果糖的 經腸壁把已消化 ( 可溶 ) 的食物和水攝入至血管內 因部分成年人的小腸內缺乏乳糖所致 患者飲用奶類飲品後, 會出現腹瀉的情況 小腸後端的部分, 是完成消化作用和進行吸收的位置 從腸壁伸出的細小呈指形構造, 大大增加了養分吸收的面積 哺乳動物腸壁的絨毛內的淋巴管 從胞間隙流入淋巴管的液體 闌尾發炎, 起因通常是由於闌尾受阻塞而發生感染, 病徵包括腹部右下部分痛楚 嘔吐和食欲不振 在一些哺乳動物中, 從盲腸尖端伸出的囊狀構這 腸內小腸與大腸交界間的分支, 另一端是盡頭, 草食性動物進食的纖維素於此被消化 大腸的一部分, 負責從糞便中吸取水分 哺乳動物的消化道中較後的一部分, 包括盲腸 闌尾 結腸和直腸 18

19 Bk2 Ch.11 Nutrition in Humans/19 cellulase 纖維素 132 enzyme produced chiefly by fungi, bacteria and protozoan that catalyze the hydrolysis of cellulose into simple sugars assimilation 同化作用 99, 134 hepatic portal vein process of absorbing and building up products of digestion into new complex body substances 肝門靜脈 134 blood vessel that carries absorbed food from small intestine to liver hepatic vein 肝靜脈 134 a vein leaving the liver and entering the inferior vena cava deamination 脫氨作用 71, 136 breakdown of excess amino acids in the liver by removal of the amino group of the amino acid molecules detoxification 解毒作用 136 the removal of the toxic quality of a substance faeces 糞便 82, 136 waste and indigested material expelled from the alimentary canal, including broken down food, dead cells and bile pigment hepatic artery 肝動脈 136 a branch of the blood vessel arising from the aorta that transport blood to the lower part of the body, carries oxygenated blood to the liver anal sphincter 肛門括約肌 136 muscle that make the anus close or contracts toxin 毒素 136 the poisonous substance of derived from animals, plants or microorganisms anus 肛門 114, 137 the posterior opening of the digestive tract through which indigested substances are eliminated from the body defaecate 排糞 137 to remove indigestible substances from the anus egestion 排遺作用 83, 99, 137 rectum 直腸 114, 137 the process of removing faeces or indigestible food from the body the last part of the large intestine, for storing faeces temporarily, opening to the outside of the body through the anus 主要由真菌 細菌和原生動物所產生的, 催化纖維素水解成單糖的過程 消化物在吸收進身體細胞後, 形成身體的複雜物質的過程 將已吸收的食物從小腸運送到肝臟的血管 離開肝臟的靜脈, 然後與下腔靜脈匯合 在肝臟內分解過量的氨基酸的反應, 過程中氨基酸分子的氨基會被除去 除去物質的毒性的過程 從消化道排走的廢物及未消化的物質, 其中有已分解的食物 已死的細胞和膽色素 從把血液運輸至身體下半部分的大動脈延伸出的血管分支, 負責把含氧血帶往肝臟 導致肛門收縮或閉合的肌肉 源自動物 植物或微生物的有毒物質 消化道末端的開口, 未被消化的食物經此排出體外 經肛門排出未被消化的物質 從體內排走糞便或未能消化的食物的過程大腸最後的部分, 經肛門通往體外, 作用是暫時儲存糞便 19

20 Bk2 Ch.11 Nutrition in Humans/20 colon cancer 結腸癌 138 virulent abnormal new growth of tissue in the colon characterized by the proliferation of undifferentiated cells that tend to invade surrounding tissue and infect new body sites haemorrhoids 痔瘡 138 also known as piles, a condition of swollen veins in and around the anus; may be associated with pain, bleeding and itching; a common cause is the low fibre content in diet 結腸組織的惡性異常生長, 特徵在於有未分化的細胞擴散, 入侵四周的組織, 使其他身體部位受到感染 是因靜脈擴張而導致肛門組織腫脹的問題, 患者的肛門部分可能有發癢 疼痛和出血的現象 ; 一般成因是膳食中缺乏纖維素 20