学校编码 :10384 分类号密级学号 : UDC 硕士学位论文南京大屠杀的社会及政府视角 : 政治和宗教的混合 The Social and Governmental Perspective of the Nanjing Massacre: The Mixture

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1 学校编码 :10384 分类号密级学号 : UDC 硕士学位论文南京大屠杀的社会及政府视角 : 政治和宗教的混合 The Social and Governmental Perspective of the Nanjing Massacre: The Mixture of Politics and Religion Jessica Louise Bookwalter 指导教师姓名 : 专业名称 : 余光弘教授中国哲学论文提交日期 : 2012 年 7 月论文答辩时间 : 2012 年 6 月学位授予日期 : 2012 年月答辩委员会主席 : 评阅人 : 2012 年 7 月

2 厦门大学学位论文原创性声明本人呈交的学位论文是本人在导师指导下, 独立完成的研究成果本人在论文写作中参考其他个人或集体已经发表的研究成果, 均在文中以适当方式明确标明, 并符合法律规范和厦门大学研究生学术活动规范 ( 试行 ) 另外, 该学位论文为 ( ) 课题 ( 组 ) 的研究成果, 获得 ( ) 课题 ( 组 ) 经费或实验室的资助, 在 ( ) 实验室完成 ( 请在以上括号内填写课题或课题组负责人或实验室名称, 未有此项声明内容的, 可以不作特别声明 ) 声明人 ( 签名 ): 年月日

3 厦门大学学位论文著作权使用声明本人同意厦门大学根据中华人民共和国学位条例暂行实施办法等规定保留和使用此学位论文, 并向主管部门或其指定机构送交学位论文 ( 包括纸质版和电子版 ), 允许学位论文进入厦门大学图书馆及其数据库被查阅借阅本人同意厦门大学将学位论文加入全国博士硕士学位论文共建单位数据库进行检索, 将学位论文的标题和摘要汇编出版, 采用影印缩印或者其它方式合理复制学位论文本学位论文属于 : ( )1. 经厦门大学保密委员会审查核定的保密学位论文, 于年月日解密, 解密后适用上述授权 ( )2. 不保密, 适用上述授权 ( 请在以上相应括号内打或填上相应内容保密学位论文应是已经厦门大学保密委员会审定过的学位论文, 未经厦门大学保密委员会审定的学位论文均为公开学位论文此声明栏不填写的, 默认为公开学位论文, 均适用上述授权 ) 声明人 ( 签名 ): 年月日

4 摘要本文的目的是想找出是否存在供奉南京大屠杀受害者的小祠或小庙 1937 年 12 月 13 日, 国民党政府的首都南京被日本人占领, 整个南京城成为屠场, 成千上万的人死亡, 仅少数人幸存现在南京城内已建一侵华日军南京大屠杀遇难同胞纪念馆, 馆内存在许多相关文物, 提醒参观者记住那些致命的日子许多人前往纪念馆表达敬意, 而政府怎么样呢? 通过调查, 我们可以看到南京市民幸存者和政府官员对该问题的看法笔者专程前往南京对南京市民进行访问, 比如当地是否会经有过供奉南京大屠杀受害者的小祠庙? 为什么仅仅只有受害者的纪念馆? 馆内可陈列祭品吗? 那些祭品是可以接受的? 这些纪念方式是否主要是用来体现团结和力量的政治秀? 有其它供人祭拜南京大屠杀受害者的宗教祠庙吗? 通过笔者在南京纪念的调查, 这些问题可得到部分的答案关键词 : 南京大屠杀 ; 中国民间宗教 ; 暴力死亡 ; 小寺庙 / 小祠 ; 孤魂野鬼 i

5 Abstract The purpose for this research is to find out if there have ever been shrines or small temples to commemorate the victims of the Nanjing Massacre (also known as the Rape of Nanjing). The Japanese bombing of Pearl Harbor on December 7th, 1941 pierced the heart of American homeland security. As a result of this military foray, the U.S. entered World War II. Less well known is another campaign of Japanese aggression which took place on Chinese soil and had a similar effect on Chinese homeland security. That day was December 13th, 1937 in Nanjing China, the capital of the Nationalist Chinese government. Japan took over Nanjing on that fateful day and wreaked havoc over the whole city for what seemed to be for eternity. Thousands and thousands of people died, but some survived. Within the city of Nanjing there is the Nanjing Massacre Museum. There are also other additions being added to the Museum for people to go to and be reminded of those fateful days. Many people come to pay their respects at this place, but what about the government? We will see what the Nanjing citizens, survivors, and government officials say about this subject. Some questions have been asked to the people of Nanjing. For example, have there ever been any shrines or small temples for the Nanjing victims before the Cultural Revolution? Why has there only been the memorial to the Nanjing victims? Can offerings be given? What offerings can be given? Is it used as a mainly political show of unity and strength? Are there any religious shrines people can go to give offerings to the Nanjing victims? What kind of beliefs do the Nanjing people have? These questions were answered in length with much research done at the Nanjing Memorial Museum. Keywords: Nanjing Massacre; Chinese Folk Religion; Violent Death; Small Temples/Shrines; Wandering Ghosts ii

6 目录绪论. 1 第一节 (0.1) 南京大屠杀历史概述. 1 第二节 (0.2) 研究意义. 4 第三节 (0.3) 研究方法. 5 第四节 (0.4) 研究困难. 6 第五节 (0.5) 中国民间宗教 : 福建与南京的比较. 8 第一章日军对南京的占领和暴行. 11 第一节 (1.1) 入侵的开始. 11 第二节 (1.2) 日军实施的暴行. 16 第三节 (1.3) 相关争议. 19 第二章宗教和庙宇 : 福建与南京的比较. 30 第二节 (2.1) 中国民间宗教对于孤魂野鬼的描述. 30 第三节 (2.2) 南京的庙宇. 31 第四节 (2.3) 对于鬼庙的解释. 35 第五节 (2.4) 南京大屠杀纪念馆的年度纪念活动. 36 第三章南京见闻和收集的证据. 38 第一节 (3.1) 本章简介. 38 第二节 (3.2) 研究者的见闻. 39 第三节 (3.3) 南京民众的观点. 41 第四章没有纪念南京大屠杀受害者的庙宇的原因. 45 第一节 (4.1) 文化理论. 45 第二节 (4.2) 损毁理论. 47 第三节 (4.3) 政府禁止理论. 49 iii

7 结论. 51 参考文献. 53 附录. 58 第一节 (1.0) 研究日志. 58 第二节 (2.0) 问卷. 61 第三节 (3.0) 表格. 62 第四节 (4.0) 图. 65 第五节 (5.0) 照片. 65 鸣谢. 89 iv

8 Table of Contents Introduction Summary of the History of Nanjing Massacre Research Significance Research Methods Research Difficulties Chinese Folk Religion: Fujian and Nanjing. 8 Chapter 1: Japanese Occupation and Terror How the War Started Atrocities that Happened The Debate. 19 Chapter 2: Religion and Temples: Comparing Fujian and Nanjing Chinese Folk Religion: Explanation of Wandering Ghosts Temples in Nanjing Explanation of Ghost Temples The Annual Ceremony at the Nanjing Memorial Hall. 36 Chapter 3: Evidence and Observations from Nanjing Chapter Overview Researcher Observations Interview Findings. 41 Chapter 4: Reasons to the Non-existence of a Temple to Massacre Victims The Culture Theory The Demolition Theory The Prohibition Theory. 49 Conclusion. 51 Bibliography. 53 v

9 Appendix Field Notes Questionnaire Tables Graphs Photographs. 65 Acknowledgements. 89 vi

10 Introduction 0.1 Summary of History of the Nanjing Massacre Wars are frequent, devastating affairs that cause the death of thousands, even millions of people. Furthermore, there are always two sides to a war, the right side and the wrong side as some people say, or more accurately, the winning side and the losing side. One of the worst wars in history was the Second World War which is also known (in Asia) as the Second Sino-Japanese War. Within Asia, World War 2 (WW2) started earlier than when it started in Europe. From 1937 until 1945 (eight years), the Japanese Imperial Army devastated China's troops and civilians (not to mention the other countries that were occupied by Japan during this time; i.e. Taiwan [1895], Korea [1910], Palau and Caroline Islands [1914], Mariana Islands [1919], Marshall Islands [1920], Manchuria [1931], French Indochina(Cambodia, Laos, Thailand, and Vietnam) [1940], Borneo, Guam, Hong Kong, Malaya, Philippines, Sarawak, Siam, Wake Island [1941], Andaman Islands, Attu, Burma, Dutch East Indies (Indonesia), Gilbert Islands, Kiska, New Guinea, Singapore, and Solomon Islands (Guadalcanal) [1942]) 1 ( WWII Lost Films 2009; Appendix: 5.82). The most frequently remembered debated and controversial part of this war for China is the Nanjing Massacre. The history of the massacre has been pored over, analyzed and critiqued extensively and many publications have been produced; and within them, this part of the war is also known as the Rape of Nanjing or Nanking. On the other side, the Japanese government refers to it as the Nanjing incident and not an actual massacre. Although there are many people that still deny the massacre happened, there has been a recent siding by some former Japanese soldiers to 1 WWII Lost Films History Channel. 1

11 recognize that this event actually happened 2 ( A Japanese Veteran Attempts to Make Peace with Haunting Memories 1998: cnn.com). Today, one can go to Nanjing and relive the horrors that happened in those weeks by touring the Nanjing Massacre Memorial Hall. The memorial was built in remembrance of the fallen victims of that event. Moreover, the family members of the victims and other survivors of the horrific, historic event go to an annual ceremony which is held at the Nanjing Memorial Hall and which will be discussed later. Though there is this one memorial to commemorate the fallen, there appears to be no other shrines or temples built to commemorate them. This was very interesting to hear from people that there were no temples or shrines for the Nanjing victims. With the knowledge gathered at that time in mind, questions were formed to investigate the possible reasons for no temples or shrines. Why are there no apparent shrines or small temples to the Nanjing massacre victims? Were there any after WW2 or before the Cultural Revolution? The purpose of this thesis is to find out what shrines/small temples there were in the past, if any of those temples were for the Nanjing victims and why there was or wasn t any then or now. Through researching on the internet, there appeared many temples in Nanjing, however these temples are used for Confucius, Buddhist or other purposes other than commemorating the dead (explained further in chapter two). Another condition that is pertinent to this thesis is the explanation of the cultural religion that exists in China which is known as Chinese folk religion. Chinese folk religion is an integral part of Chinese culture and the society. Depending on what region of China a person goes to, the beliefs can be different; and even from person to person in that region can be different. Nevertheless, one fact seems to remain the same; and that is the belief of ghosts and/or spirits. For example, 2 A Japanese Veteran Attempts to Make Peace with Haunting Memories. Aug. 16, < 2

12 in Chinese folk religion, when a person or people die violent deaths and there is no one to take care of their souls they become wandering ghosts 3. This is the belief of the Fujian and Taiwan people that follow the folk religion (cf. Harrell 1974; Jordan 1972; Nelson 1974; Weller 1987; Wolf 1974; Yu 1990). While researching the belief of wandering ghosts, they seem to play a big part in folk religion and in the Nanjing massacre. According to the beliefs of Chinese folk religion, while these victims died horrifically, it should be up to the living survivors to remember those who died and take care of their needs (ibid.). Also, there are three major theories as to why no temples or shrines have been built within the city of Nanjing or anywhere else in the vicinity of Nanjing. Discussion on the history of the massacre, the explanation of folk religion and ghosts, the theories for no shrines, and people refusing to talk will be disclosed in chapter four. Furthermore, another aspect being discussed in chapter two is the annual ceremony held at the Nanjing Memorial even though there is no actual shrine to the victims. Political debates have been going on since the end of the Second World War; especially between China and Japan. According to 4 Yang Daqing (1999: 843), To many observers, the Rape of Nanjing thus represents an emotionally charged and highly politicized subject. There have been disagreements as to the legitimate existence of the massacre, whether or not the massacre should be placed in Japanese history books, and the amount of indemnities that are owed to China from Japan, and so on. All of these topics along with others have been debated about for decades with no final agreement yet. On the other hand, there has not been much religious discussion about this 3 Harrell 1974; Jordan 1972; Nelson 1974; Weller 1987; Wolf 1974; Yu Yang Convergence or Divergence? Recent Historical Writings on the Rape of Nanjing. The American Historical Review 104(3):

13 event in history. Many people focus on what happened in the past, how it is effecting the relations at present and how it might affect future ties between China and Japan. From exhausting as many research sources as possible, I have found that there is nothing on the subject of the effect of religion in the topic of the Nanjing Massacre. Although there are no apparent primary sources (books and scholarly journals) for this specific topic, much research will be based off of research of shrines and temples from other provinces of China and on the evidence of wandering ghosts within those provinces as well. 0.2 Research Significance For this research, the objective has been to find out about whether there is or ever were any small temples or shrines commemorating the victims of the Nanjing Massacre. The significance of this research is to reveal the religious angle that has infiltrated the political/patriotic orientation towards the Nanjing Massacre. One visible feature that must be discussed is Chinese folk religion and its belief of when someone dies a violent death (discussed in chapter three) one becomes a wandering ghost (cf. Harrell 1979: 519; Scott 2007: 92; Wolf 1974: 147 & 273; Yu 1990: 50). Also made clear within the folk religion, the living would take responsibility to "satiate" the ghosts needs in order to keep them from becoming angry and/or violent. 5 Nanjing massacre had thousands of people die horrific, violent deaths. With that in mind, the people of Nanjing would have some sort of obligation to the "ghosts" of the victims (cf. Jordan 1972: 34; Harrell 1977: 56; Scott 2007: 91). Another important part of this research is the differences between how society (the Chinese citizens) and the Chinese government choose to commemorate the victims. Through the chapters, The 5 Yu Guanghong Making a Malefactor a Benefactor: Ghost Worship in Taiwan. Bulletin of the Institute of Ethnology Academica Sinica 70:

14 there will be discussion about the way citizens remember the dead compared to the way the government remembers the dead. A basis that will help understand the social and governmental reality of the Nanjing Massacre is the culture of the country itself. Chinese culture has also been enriched by the diverse beliefs of Buddhism, Daoism and other religions. To learn about the religious part of the Nanjing Massacre is important for all people to know because it is part of the Chinese culture and society. Plus, temples and shrines have been in place all over China for centuries; and so the existence of a small temple or shrine to the victims should be important to the Chinese people. The hope for this research is to help give more understanding and knowledge of what happened in the past during the Nanjing Massacre, what is going on now with tensions in Asia and what might happen in the future between Japan and other Asian countries. 0.3 Research Methods During this research, I conducted interviews with 450 people native to the Jiangsu province and all of them except for one were originally from Nanjing. However, out of these interviews, 405 of them only answered two questions from the survey and nothing else; which led to throwing out most of the interviews and only using 45. These people ranged from years old and were asked a series of questions (Appendix: 2.0). Some of the questions were about the belief in ghosts; other questions about temples/shrines for ghosts, and the rest were about reasons for not having small temples or shrines to commemorate the victims (Appendix: 4.1; 4.2). The nature of this research was of more qualitative research in finding out people s opinions, thoughts and reasoning which cannot be measured quantitatively. However, there is some quantitative evidence gathered from a percentage of the interviewees 5

15 that will show a representation of what people s beliefs are. The graphs and tables in the Appendix, show the statistics of only those 45 interviewees that completed as least 75% of the interview. The reason to why the majority of the interviewees did not answer the open ended questions is yet to be discovered. After all the interviews were conducted, I created graphs to display the data found. The first graph exhibited about the interviewees belief in ghosts. Out of all the people interviewed, 28 people answered that they did not believe in ghosts while 12 believed (Appendix: 4.1). There were two other selections as well; sometimes or do not know. Two people answered that they sometimes believe in ghosts and there were three who did not know if they believed or not (Appendix: 3.1). Within another graph was drawn up on the people s answers to the building of a separate shrine/memorial or temple. A total of 23 people said there should not be one built while only 16 said one should be built. The other 6 interviewees checked the box for I don t know for this question (Appendix: 4.2). Out of the 10 percent who would give answers, there was four people that gave very well thought out answers and went above and beyond the questionnaire to discuss further ideas of the Nanjing Massacre. The other 41 people would answer the questionnaire with brief answers to the open ended questions. This next section will discuss the multiple difficulties and obstacles that needed to be overcome. Many of the problems that occurred were primarily physically ailments while other interferences were more about the timing, interviews, and other factors. 0.4 Research Difficulties During the one year of research and data gathering, there were many limitations and obstacles that came into my way. The very first problem started in September when I was physically unable to go anywhere where research needed to be 6

16 done until very late in December. The physicality was from two broken ankles. This incident made me postpone my trip to Nanjing for at least three months which postponed me from conducting interviews. During that time of confinement, I tried to search for significant resources online. Some were found under English searches, however much of the information was found in Chinese sources. Unfortunately, I cannot read Chinese and so had to rely on the English resources. Moreover, friends also tried to help me find resources from the library; however, many of the resources were also in Chinese. For the trip to Nanjing, it had to be cut short because of physical issues and very low finances. This initially caused me to print less surveys out, making my data sampling smaller. Moreover, I had to live outside of the city center. This was more cost effective, but there was the disadvantage of not staying in the center of the city where I wanted to conduct the interviews. Less time was spent in the inner city because of where I stayed and so the data is based more on people that live on the outskirts of the city and not from the inside. Another problem was the time of arrival in Nanjing for the field research. It was just before the Spring Festival and that was the only time possible to get up there within the time limit the University gave for the deadline of the thesis draft. With that in mind, professors that I was seeking out for interviews were unavailable because they were traveling, finishing up their classes, or grading papers. A third problem was not being able to get an interview with the director of the Nanjing Massacre Memorial museum. Many times I tried to call and/or send s to the director and to his secretary. However, there was no answer back anytime; and so I have no data to add to the thesis that could have been beneficial to the research. So, the data gathered was yet smaller than what I wanted. The fourth problem was when I found out about when the annual ceremony 7

17 Degree papers are in the Xiamen University Electronic Theses and Dissertations Database. Full texts are available in the following ways: 1. If your library is a CALIS member libraries, please log on and submit requests online, or consult the interlibrary loan department in your library. 2. For users of non-calis member libraries, please mail to etd@xmu.edu.cn for delivery details.

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A Study of Huangtao : I Abstract Abstract This text focuses on the special contribution of Huangtao in the history of literature and culture of Fukien, by analyzing the features of Huangtao s thought,

学校编码 :10384 分类号密级 学号 : UDC 硕士学位论文 南京大屠杀的社会及政府视角 : 政治和宗教的混合 The Social and Governmental Perspective of the Nanjing Massacre: The Mixture

学校编码 :10384 分类号密级学号 : UDC 硕士学位论文南京大屠杀的社会及政府视角 : 政治和宗教的混合 The Social and Governmental Perspective of the Nanjing Massacre: The Mixture