Abstract The Yogacara philosophy is often studied and discussed by scholars drawing ideas from phenomenology. In fact, I would argue that Yogacara tho

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1 ~29 The Deconstructive and Superdeconstructive Existentialism ofyogacara Thought and a Creative Transformation of Yogacara Discourse * Ou Chung-Ching ( 1 ) 2 3 ( ) 1

2 Abstract The Yogacara philosophy is often studied and discussed by scholars drawing ideas from phenomenology. In fact, I would argue that Yogacara thought are more closely connected with and comparable to existentialism, deconstructionism, and philosophy of mind and consciousness. These aspects of philosophy also provide us ways to discuss Yogacara thought in a more creative manner and thereby serve as a means to transform Yogacara discourses. The development of Yogacara philosophy can be divided into 5 phases. The first phase witnessed the translation of Mahayanasajgraha by Paramartha during the Liang dynasty. The second phase started when Xuanzang, Kueiji, Yuantse, Huizhao, Zhibiuao established the Yogacara school in China. The most important text in this phase is Cheng Weishi Lun (Vijbaptimatratasiddhi). The third phase is Ming dynasty when more than eight Yogacara texts were written in Chinese. The fourth phase is the Republican era when Yang Wenhui, Ouyang jingwu, Zhang Taiyan, Chen Sanli, Ly Cheng, Huang Chanhua, Zhang Kecheng, Wang Siyang, Mei Jieyun, Tang Dayuan were active and founded the Nei Xueyuan (Inner Academy). The fifth phase is when Taiwan scholars developed new methodology to study Yogacara by drawing European philosophy and utilizing Sanskrit text and philological studies of these texts in Japanese, German, English, and French. There is little doubt that the most original and creative Yogacara texts are Cheng Weishi Lun written in Chinese and Yogacarabhumi written in India. The Yogacarabhumi 2

3 is only available in its one hundred scrolls Chinese translation. Therefore, these two texts will be used as the major source in my creative transformation of the Yogacara thought and discourse. Keywords: YogacaraFaxiangCheng Weishi Lun (Vijbaptimatratasiddhi) XuanzangExistentialism 3

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31 ~51 The Discovery of Quanxiang Xianfa Xiangshe Haiyiu Jizhuan (A Complete Illustrated Account of the Manifestation of Spiritual Power in a Journey to the Ocean in which a Serpent was Tamed) Printed in Qianlong Era * Hu Hong-bo * 31

32 Abstract The most well known novels about Madam Riverside, a goddess popular in the northern Fujian province, is Linshui Pingyao Ji (An Account of Riverside Subdued a Monster). This novel was lost in China and later brought back to China from Taiwan recently. The content of this novel is based on the first few chapters of Mindu Bieji (An Account of the Min Capital). Mindu Bieji was written during the reigns of Emperor Qianlong and Jiaqing. Another work related to this series of works is Chen Jingu Zhuan (A Biography of Chen Jingu). As this book was lost so it would be hard to date it. Quanxiang Xianfa Xiangshe Haiyiu Jizhuan (A Complete Illustrated Account of Manifestation of Spiritual Power in a Journey to the Ocean in which a Serpent was Tamed) seems to be the earliest among this series of books based on the story of Madame 32

33 Riverside subduing the monsters. This statement is based on the fact that this novel is not mentioned in any of the research on Fujian popular beliefs published in China, nor was it mentioned in any papers presented at a conference on Madame Riverside held in Fujian, Gutian. Even in a reference book in which the excerpts of classical novels are collected, this novel is not mentioned. Although there is a novel entitled Journey to the Ocean in this reference book, it has no connection to our subject of study as the content is quite different. The rediscovery of this novel gives rise to the following issues that require further investigation. First, it is a Qianlong era reprint by Wenyuan Hall based on the mode carved by the Ming Zhongzheng Hall (run by Xiong Longfeng). It is printed on very thin and fragile paper with round edges. The illustrations and writings remain intact in this edition. Although it is a Qing reprint and is not as valuable as the Ming and Yuan editions, the discovery of this text is important in that this kind of edition is quite rare. Second, the content of this novel is very similar to the chapter four of Sanjiao Yuanliu Soushen Daquan but not Mindu Bieji and Linshui Pingyao ji. This provides us some clues for the time and location of this novel. Third, this novel is quite unique in that the significance of local shamanism is stressed. Although Guanyin Bodhisattva is portrayed as the advisor of Chen Jingu who guides Chen to leave household, to subdue the monster serpent, and finally to attain the Dao, its Buddhist inclination is outweighed by the doctrine of Lu Mountain that seems to be the real center of this novel. Fourth, the literary skills adopted in this novel are immature and unsophisticated, which points to the possibility of popular writers creating stories drawing from folk beliefs. Fifth, another complete illustrated novel is Tianfei Maniang Zhang (The Biography of Heavenly Consort Maniang), a biography portraying the life of Lin 33

34 Moniang of Meizhou in southern Fujian. As both novels are biographies of goddess related to water, and one was popular in Southern Fujian and another in Northern Fujian, and they were both worshipped in Taiwan, a comparison and contrast of these two deities become a very interesting and important topic. These are the five issues that I will discuss in my paper. Keywords: Qianlong, Chen Jingu, Madame Riverside, folk religion, shamanism 34

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53 ~78 On Religious Freedom in Constitutions * Hsu Yu-tien and Chou Ching-fan 13 Abstract Religious freedom is a basic human right that people have long been fighting for. It stands out as the most essential right which comes before the nation. Religious freedom prescribed in constitutions implies that the spiritual freedom of people is warranted. Therefore, based on these principles set out in the constitutions of democratic countries, people are able to create a society in which religious freedom are allowed. The thirteenth * 53

54 article of the R.O.C. Constitution states, People have the freedom to choose their own religion and faith. However, this statement is too brief and simple to fully express the significance of religious freedom. In this paper, we will start off from the relationship among people, nation, and basic human rights to fully explore the essentiality of religious freedom as a basic human right. Furthermore, we would also analyze the implications of religious freedom as it is stated in the Constitution. Keywords: Religious freedom, Constitution, Human Right, Faith 54

55 1 2 (die Säkularisierung) 3 (weltlich) geistlich 4 5 ü ü 55

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79 ~99 -- Destroy idols Talk about annotation of Buddhism Sutra from the review of Vimalakirti-Nivdesa Sutra * Sung Jin-Song 爲 Abstract Buddhism Sutra s structure is basically fusing Principle and Myth together. According to Myth -Idol, there are two elemental kinds of annotation of Buddhism Sutra, one is explaining Myth by Myth, and the other is explaining Myth by Principle. Explaining Myth by Avenue is a special form of explaining Myth by Principle. Chen Ju, a * 79

80 scholar-bureaucrat in Nan Song Dynasty, wrote the comment of Vimalakirti-Nivdesa Sutra. Influenced by indigenous cultures such as Zhuangzi, the reeview was based on annotation of Zen and developed Explaining Idol by Avenue and explaining Myth by Principle to the extreme. Chen Ju argued that the figures of Buddha and Bodhisattva were symbolistic idols rather than objective ones. The kind of annotation was why Confucianism, Buddhism and Taoism could fuse into one. KeywordChen Juthe comment of Vimalakirti-Nivdesa Sutraexplaining Myth by Principleidols 80

81 -- 爲 ( ) ( 406 ) 爲, 爲 爲 爲 爲 爲 爲 爲 爲 爲 爲 1 81

82 抛 2 爲 爲 爲 衆

83 -- 爲 爲 4 産 5 衆 爲 衆 爲 6 衆 7 爲 83

84 8 爲 9 麽 爲 爲 衆 10 爲 爲 11 84

85 -- 12 衆 衆 爲 爲 13 衆 爲 85

86 爲 17 刹 刹 爲 衆 爲 爲 衆 18 爲 爲 19 迹 20 衆 衆 衆

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88 23 爲 衆 爲 鼈 24 爲 衆 爲 88

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92 爲 爲 爲 衆 齅 爲 爲 衆 爲 衆 爲 爲 衆 92

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94 爲 衆 爲 爲 爲 衆 爲 衆 爲 爲 爲 爲 爲 爲 爲 爲 衆 爲 羣 衆 衆 衆 衆 衆 94

95 -- 爲 爲 衆 衆 衆 爲 爲 衆 衆 衆 衆 爲 爲 爲 衆 爲 95

96 爲 爲 爲 爲 爲 爲 爲 爲 爲 爲 爲 爲 爲 爲 爲 爲 爲 96

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98 衆 衆 衆 衆 衆 衆 刹 衆 爲 爲 衆 爲 爲 衆 爲 衆 衆 衆 爲 98

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101 ~115 Empowerment and the Grace of God: an Interpretation of the Christian View of Human Self-realization and Transcendence * Kong Li-jen Abstract Empowerment is a sociological concept that refers to the process in which the suppressed and deprived ones in the society transform their own roles from victims to social reformists, and thereby mobilize other deprived ones to engage in the social and political activities to fight for their own interests. However, in the Christian view of * 101

102 redemption, transcendence is impossible. Even becoming a saint is solely the work performed by the Holy Spirit. Anyone holds that human ability and autonomy can help one to achieve salvation are regarded as self-justification. In this paper, I will start from an analysis of the concept empowerment, and attempt to answer the following questions. Is taking a bite of the forbidden fruit an act of empowerment or a sin? Does Christian faith empower people or turn people into cowards? If there are other forms of empowerment in Christianity, how do that work? Keywords: Empowerment, Christianity, Theology, Interpretation, Human beings 102

103 1 2 ( ) I.Kant 3 Dorothee Solle

104 6 6: Stanley Hauerwas narrative

105 10 (truth) (truthfulness) Paul Tillich 11 eschaton 105

106 theosis Athanasius God 12 gods 13 Orthodox Church theosis 14 (becoming) Jean-Paul 15 Sartre 106

107 16 Saint Maximos Confessor 1:4 3: essence energy

108 synergism Macarius of Egypt 21 (Trinity) 22 (communion of deification)

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117 ~142 A Research of the Relationship between The One bear Water and Chou I Tshan Thung Chhi * Janus Fang 117

118 Abstract The One bear Water (Tai-I-Sheng-Shuei) comes from the book of bamboo in the Ch u s tomb at Kuo-Dian. This article focuses on the meaning of The One bear Water from the documents of Chou dynasty, Qien and Han dynasty, emphasizing the differences and the affinities. Secondly, I deal with the use of The One and Water in thechou I Tshan Thung Chhi. How is it related to history? Is The One the origin of cosmology or is it the related to the idea of mountain people? If it is the end of cultivating the spirit, what is the process? If it is the start of cultivating the spirit, what is the end? Or is it the God in worship or the symbol of totem? Is it the consolation of the human being? Is it religious thinking more than philosophic debate? Or is it the metaphysical logic of the Biomedical? I want to discuss these problems and as follows: 1. The One in the documents of Chou dynasty. 2.The meaning of The One in the documents of Qien and Han dynasty. 3.The relationship between The One bear Water and Chou I Tshan Thung Chhi. 4. The One bear Water in the cultivating of the spirit. KeywordsThe Oneconsolationphilosophic debatethe Biomedical the metaphysical logic 118

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143 ~165 Sacred Mountains as Locations of Interaction between Buddhism and Daoism The Development of Buddhism and Daoism in Tiantai Mountain during the Tang Dynasty * Lin Chia-jung 143

144 Abstract The formation of sacred mountains is an essential topic in the field of history of Chinese religions. The importance of mountain in Chinese traditional culture, along with the Buddhist and Daoist preferences for mountains as cites of practice, gave rise to the sacred mountains. In this paper, I would like to point out that when we look at the process in which some mountains were elevated to the status of sacred mountains, it is common that Buddhism and Daoism co-existed on those mountains. On these common bases, both religions developed their own doctrines and attracted followers. This phenomenon, when placed alongside the larger issue of the interaction between Buddhism and Daoism, which was usually dealt with by looking into the Buddhist and Daoist apologetic texts, shed new lights to this issue and made us ask questions like, Do these common bases provide a common ground on which Buddhists and Daoists can exchange ideas and thereby generate new ideas? Among the issues related to sacred mountains, I would like to focus on those related to the Tiantai Mountain during the Tang dynasty. Tang dynasty represents a phase when the debates among the three religions reached their peaks. Both the Buddhist Tiantai School and the Daoist adept Sima Chengzhen established themselves on this mountain. 144

145 Therefore, I will attempt to analyze the interaction between these two important groups of religious practitioners. I will start this paper with a historical context in which the sacred mountains came into existence, and then the activities of Buddhists and Daoists on Tiantai Mountain will serve as an example of the interaction between Buddhism and Daoism on these sacred mountains. Keywords: Daoism, Buddhism, debates among three religions, Tiantai mountain, Tiantai school, Sima Chengzhen, sacred mountains 145

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167 ~209 A Research for the theory of Chengfu of Tai Ping Classic * Yuan Guang-Yi Abstract Tai Ping Classic (the scripture of the Great Peace, ) is the early stage scripture of Taoist religion, it extracts the theory of Chengfu (undertaking ancestors sins and being responsible for later generations, ) to reply the theory of retribution (for sins 167

168 and reward for merits) expounded from the pre-qin dynasty and the two Han dynasty. The theory of Chengfu may be called the main and basic argumentation of Taoism. But few articles discuss the content, value and defect of the theory of Chengfu completely and explicitly. This text return to discuss the original scripture one side, besides, to review and value the theory of Chengfu by contrasting with the Karma of Buddhism. Keywords: Taoism, Tai Ping Classic, the theory of Chengfu, Karma, the theory of retribution 168

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211 ~240 A Research for the theory of immortal supernatural beings of Tai Ping Classic * Yong Shu-Howi Abstract The thought of immortal supernatural beings is the main idea in Taoism. Because the other teachings are all connected to this main idea. Besides, the final purpose of the cultivation of Taoists or Taoist priests is to be an immortal supernatural being. Choosing 211

212 the Thought of Immortal Supernatural Beings in Tai Pin Chin as the topic of the essay, it s because: first, as knowing the thought of immortal supernatural beings is the main idea of Taoism, therefore it s important to discuss the topic. Second, as Tai Pin Chin is considered as the early Taoist sutra, researching it would be helped to clarify the origination and development of this thought in the early Taoism. Therefore, in this paper, would first discuss the theories of the thought of immortal supernatural beings in Tai Pin Chin, then would try to find out the ways of cultivation in Tai Pin Chin. We hope to find out the development of the immortal thought through the discussing of this paper. KeywordTai Ping ClassicThe thought of immortal supernatural beings immortalworks of soulworks of life 212

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241 ~254 How the music of witchcraft in Shang Dynasty evolved into the performance style regulated by the Confucian teaching of social orders. * Howong Shou-Gi Abstract This paper starts with discussion of the interrelation among religion, witchcraft and music of the ancient times. Following the change paths of performance forms and insights of dances and music in 6 dynasties, we will discuss how the music of witchcraft in Shang Dynasty evolved into the performance style regulated by the Confucian teaching of social orders. The foci are on the transformation of national characters and the influence of social 241

242 ideology on music style. Besides, another interesting topic is the role of ceremonial classical music, which is developed as a result of Confucianism music system, in Chinese civilization development. Key Word: religion, witchcraft, music, Confucianism (teaching of social orders), ceremonial classical music 242

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255 ~275 On the Intersection and Choice of Prajna School and Hsuan-Hsueh * Shi Suei -Yu Abstract Among the many Mahayana scriptures, Vimalakirti Sutra is the only one that records the preach of the secular devotee, and is one of the few scriptures included into Chinese culture. Basing upon Prajna Sutra, Vimalakirti Sutra has the character of 255

256 demonstrating sunya with the methodology of negation. Discussing the main idea and the dissemination of Vimalakirti Sutra, this paper is to prove that its character was as important as sunya and nothingness during the East and West Tsin Dynasty. Keyword Vimalakirti SutraPrajnaHsuan-Hsuehwordlessbeyondwords 256

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277 ~287 The Japanese Mind as Found in the Original Religion By Kubota Nobuyuki * New year s celebrations are an important part of Japanese life.all government offices and private companies close down completely from the end of December to early January. Almost all shops and stores also close at New Year s.people born in the country use this time to return with their families to their rural home towns where lies the ancestor s soul. This huge human migration of course puts quiet a strain on railway service and causes massive trffic jams on main roads. New Year s is a time people honor and greet the souls of their ancestors solemnly and with dignity. They wholeheartedly prepare for the ceremonies at an auspicious place. We can find a connection with the Japanese original unique religion or myth at the back of this social phenomenon done like this. All the different peoples and nations of the world each have their own unique custom under the own mythologies and original narratives. It is possible to study the formulation and contents of those basic religious tales from a number of different viewpoints. I myself do research in this field from the standpoint that it is a human construct, from the point of view of which a people s mythology can be thought of as an extremly deep entity that works to formulate the very foundations of a nation. 277

278 Mythology is involved with the existential substructure of a people or a nation in such a way that within its state of that people or nation. Thus, I intend to present here analysis of the unique features of Japanese mentality through the mythology of Japan. Nucleus of Japanese mind Japanese mythology consists of a large munber of intereting stories, but now I will concentrate on the tales of the three august personages which are normally thought of as its nucleurs. They are the three deitis Amaterasu( ), Tsukuyomi( 読 ), and Susano-o( ) who were born of the Great Father Izanagi( ) after the death of Great Mother Izanami( )the parents of the Land of Japan itself. Izanagi followed his dead wife as far as the Land of the Other World named Yellow Spring( 黄 国 ) but he was unable to bring her back with him, so he returned to the world of the living and performed a purification ceremony. During this ceremony, Amaterasu(the sun goddess) was born from his right eye, Tsukuyomi(the moon god) was born from his left eye, and Susano-o(sometimes known as the god of wind) was born from his nose. This triad holds an exteremly important position in Japan s mythology. However, one of the uniqeue features of The Record of Ancient Matters(Kjiki ), in which the major myths of Japan are recorded, is that while many tales of confrontation between Amaterasu and Susano-o appear in its pages, no mention is made of Tsukuyomi. But it must be noted that while Amaterasu and Susano-o often come into confrontation with each other, they are not true antagonists, for their relationship is not that of one being pure evil and the other pure good. Amaterasu is the Sun Goddess, and her 278

279 descendants are thetennou Family of Japan, for which reason she is considered the central figure or the major deity of Japanese mythology, but as I will explain in more detail later in this treatise, there are other complications involved. After Susano-o was born of Izanagi, he cried for his mother and insisted that he wanted to go to her, until Izanagi ordered him out of his sight. Then Susano-o went to the heavenly kingdom of Taka-ama-hara( )which was ruled by his sister Amaterasu to bid her farewell. But Amaterasu misunderstood his intent, believing that he had come to rob her kingdom, so she armed herself and went out to meet him. Susano-o tried to convence his sister that he had no such intent, and to prove his fidelity, he swore an oath. Amaterasu then crushed Susano-o s sword with her teeth and three girls were born. In return, Susano-o crushed Amaterasu s Fragrant Jewel( a comma-shaped bead) with his teeth and five boys were born. Amaterasu declared that the three girls born of Susano-o s sword were his offspring and that the five boys born of her own Fragrant Jewel were hers. Susano-o rejoiced saying that the fact that his children were girls proved that he had a pure heart. We must take care to note that in this oath-taking scene, we find Susano-o the victor and we also see that in her misunderstanding of Susano-o s intent, Amaterasu is not presented as an entity of absolute knowledge. It is also a point of great interest that the one who gave birth to girls is considered the one with a pure heart, which means that the female is given ascendency over the male here. Also in The Chronicles of Japan(Nihon shoki ) which was written about the same time as The Record of Ancient Mattter, the mythology of Japan has been recorded with a number of variations. It contains a particularly large variety of variations on this oath-swearing scence between Amaterasu and Susano-o. The details are not important to 279

280 us here except in the case of variant in which the giving birth to boys is declared proof a pure heart, and accordingly, Susano-o is the one who fathers boys in such variations. In other words, this seems to indicate that there was not set theory as to whether it was men or women who were superior. Also it means that if Susano-o is to be considere the one who gave birth to boys, the Imperial Family is descended from him rather than from Amaterasu, and it means that Amaterasu was not thought of as the absolute central figure of the pantheon. Japanese style of the peace making After Susano-o came out victorious in the oathswearing, he went about committing all manner of evil deeds in response to which Amaterasu grew angry and shut herself up in a cave. Here we see another unique feature of Japanese mythology instead of doing battle with Susano-o, Amaterasu hid herself in a cave. All the gods were greatly troubled by this act of Amaterasu s, so they tried many things, and finally succeeded in enticing her back out of her cave. Then they chased Susano-o out of heaven, forcing him to enter the lower world. It is here that we finally see Amaterasu clearly taking the position of good and Susano-o that of evil. After Susano-o was evicted from heaven, he became a cultural hero on the earth and established a wonderful kingdom for himself here. Amaterasu s grandson came from heaven to this earthly kingdom and the descendents of Susano-o gave over the rule of their land to that grandson of Amaterasu, and this is how the nation of Japan came into being. Even in this case, the descendents of Susano-o and Amaterasu did not confront each other directly in battle, rather the transfer was made in the form of giving over of 280

281 power. This is another unique feature of the mythology of Japan. Here we see that the ultimate ruling power came to be centered around the Tennou Family of Japanese.But at the same time, the descendents of Susano-o, who was the rival of Amaterasu, were not wiped out, but rather they were worshipped in the Shino shrines aand they continued to maintain an important position in the subsequent history of Japan. As I mentioned earlier, while we have a great number of stories and tales about the activities of Amaterasu and Susano-o, there is no mention at all of the Moon God Tsukuyomi. And this seems quite strange when we consider the fact that the people of Japan have always shown far greater love for the moon than for the sun and that there are far more poems in praise of the moon than of the sun in Japanese literature. It is for this reason that I have given a great deal of thought to the idea that it is actually this Moon God Tsukuyomi who occupies the central position in the structure of Japanese mythology. In other words, I feel that among all such opposite active forces as heaven and earth, man and woman, and good and bad, there is no single one that occupies the central position, for it is occupied by the inactive force of Tsukuyomi and that he is the only one who is appropriate to the central position of the Japanese pantheon. The same thing can be said of the triad that appears in the first generation of deities recorded in The Record of Ancient Matters, whose names are Ame no Minakanushi( )Takamimusubi( 産 巣 )and Kamimusubi( 産 巣 ).In other words, Takamimusubi is the father principle and Kamimusubi is the mother principle, and their activities are presented in this context in the myths that follow, but there is no mention at all made in the following myths about the central figure of Ame no Minakanushi. 281

282 The same thing can be said about the three deities of the creation period that we mentioned about the three august personages, in terms of the central figure being inactive. There is insufficient time today to go into the matter of the third triad, but it must be pointed out that these third generation deities which were born from the marriage between gods that came down from heaven and those who already existed on earth have the same sort of inactive deity as their central figurre. It is due to these points that I have chosen to discuss the hallow center of the Japanese myths found in The Record of Ancient Matters as one of their most significant elements. Rather than place some basic principle or powerful entity in the central position as an overall ruling factor, the center is left inactive and empty in order to allow a harmonious balance among the surrounding entities to bring about a sense of organized fullfilment to the whole. In contrast to the more common Central-Power-Ruled Model, I call this the Hollow-Center Balanced-Model. There are any number of other details concerning Japanese mythology that I would like to present here, but as time dose not allow, I will go on now to consider the matter of the relationship of this Hollow-Center-Balanced Mythology to the Japanese mentality. I am convinced that in terms of both the internal structure of the Japanese mentality and the mutual social relationships which the Japanese create with each other, this Hollow-Center-Balanced Model is extremely appropriate and effective. I also feel that it can be stated that the same Hollow-Center-Balance Structure acts as a strong but invisible support to the Japanese ideological, religious, and social structures. Comparison with Christianity When compared with the mythology of Chrisitanity, the hollow structure of 282

283 Japanese mythology becomes even more clearly defined. In the contex of the single male deity as the central figure in Christianity, the distinction between good and evil is extremely clearcut. And all elements that are not consistent with the existence of that single central deity are either banished to the periphery or completely liquidated. Conversely, in the context of the Japanese Hollow-Center-Balanced Model, we find the unique feature of allowing the mutual existence of reciprocal elements that maintain a delicate balance among themselves. The weakest point of the Hollow-Center Model lies in the fact that the center position is weak, which means that it is easy for any element to invade that center. When the overall power structure is in a stage of perfect balance, the strength of the whole works to protect the center from invasion, but even the slightest deterioration of the overall balance can quickly result in the invasion of the center by some single strong element. And on top of this, judgment between right and wrong is so ambivalent that it is possible for any strong element at all to come in and take over temporarily. Of course, even if such an unexpected element should take over, the restorative power of the whole will the eventually set to work to eject that element from the central position. But the possibility of such a temporary invasion can be held up as one of the weak points in the Japanese mentality. Japanese way of thinking In his thesis titled The Special Quality off Japanese Ideology, Philosopher Ueyama Shunpeiclaims that there is an element of radical philosophical denial throughout the entire history of Japanese ideology. He explains this philosophical denial as nothing more than an absolute passivityan attitude of total avoidance of the 283

284 aggressive assertion of any sysytematic thoretical doctrine. I believe that this is one piece of evidence for my Hollow-Center theory. Since ancient times, Japan has continued to introduce and accept foreign cultural elements. In some cases, those foreign elements have appeared to take over the center, but as time goes by, they are always expelled from the center and put through a process of Japanization. Thus, they do not disapper, but rather take their place among all the other elements present in a balanced manner, leaving the center hollow once again. This ever repeating pattern appears to me to be the same as that Hollow-Center-Balanced Model found in the Japanese mythology. In the contex of religion and ideology, we find the Japan has taken in Buddhism, Confucianism, and Taoism in ancient times and Western scientific ideology in modern times, all without abandoning the unique ancient Japanese Shintoism, and maintains them all in a harmonious state of mutual existence. This is a clear practical reflection of the theory I have been explaining in this thesis. Even in the case of the individual Japanese heart and mind, it seems to me that the major recognizable feature is a lack of a clearly centered personal doctorine and a desire to take in everything one comes into contact with and continue life with a sense of mutual accord. There are those who criticize this attitude of the Japanese calling it an other-oriented attitude, but it cannot be explained as simply as that, for, as I mentioned earlier, within the process of accepting anything that comes from the outside, there is a gradual insertion of the self and an attempt to attain a harmonious balance of the whole. Accordingly, I feel that the true strength of the Japanese lies not in how clearly one can make others understand and act in accordance with one s own theories and beliefs but rather in how many outside elements one can accept without losing one s own identity. And I am convinced that it is this basic difference in approach to life that brings about 284

285 misunderstandings between Japanese and Westerners, Japanese groups want their leader to maintain an inactive hollow existence. They do not like leaders that try to pull the entire group in a single clearcut direction, rather they expect a leader to work toward the creation of an appropriate balance among all the members of group in order that the leader himself can reach a state of inactivity. As a result, there is a certain type of politician in Japan who is extremely sensitive to nothing but the overall balance but who has almost no policies or sense of direction of his own. Thus, we see that the Hollow-Center-Balanced Model stands in diametric opposition to the Central-Power-Ruled Model, and that they both have advantages and disadvantages. It is quite impossible to say that one is totally good and the other totally bad. Rather, I feel that it is necessary for both models to associate with each other and not try to adhere adamantly to one s own model and attack the other, but constantly think about the other model and work toward a mutually progressive relationship in which both can learn from the other from time to time. I think that knowledge of these two models can become of great use particularly in times when the relationship between Japan and other nations threatens to be hostile. It can be said that present-day Japan is faced with the problem of learning many things from the Central-Power-Ruled Model while attempting to maintain as many of the good elements of the Hollow-Center-Balanced Model as possible, and I feel that there are great difficulties to be dealt with in the present age because of the fact that these two models do not find it easy to achieve a successful co- existence. 1.Polls by Japan Broadcasting Corporation(NHK) and several leading 285

286 newspapers indicate that about 15% of Japanese are actively involved in religious activities and that about 10% are concious atheists. A further 10% did not respond. The remainder felt that religion was important for human life although they themselves were not ordinarily involved in religous activities. 2.About 80% of the Japanese support the custom of visiting a shrine or temple at New Year s. 巻 5.Some people hold the opinion that the aversion to antagonism is the characteristc feature the Japanese culture. 6. 戸 経 会 説 学 参 献 観 学 巻 様 総 286

287 彦 学 学 287

288 288

289 289

290 / / 290

291 / 291

292 :

293 2 :

294 /

295 dāna ( ) ( ) ( )

296 1. ( )

297 3. 297

298 羣 羣 却 羣 却 ( ) 却 ( ) 350 却 298

299 羣 ( ) 299

300 / / 300

301 ( ) 301

302 ( ) ( ) ( ) 302

303 ( ) Prinston 303

304 Hunsquen Carbat 304

305 305

306

307 ( ) 307

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309 309

310 Mircea Eliade sacred profane / eternal return 310

311 311

312 (7537~40) (224) 2 (2:30~32) 312

313 (2:33~39) (751~36~12) (226~9) 313

314 Hijra 622 C.E. jahili immanence 314

315 315

316 316

317 317

318 Catholic 318

319 A 319

320 Batavia Clemente Fernandez Tomas de la Hoz Jose Arregui William F. Kupfer

321 ~ ~15 321

322 prefecture diocese ~ ~

323 ( ) 323

324 33 324

325 ( ) ( )

326 1988 ( ) ( ) 326

327

328

329

330 Rudolf Bultmann (Paul Tillich) (Dietrich Bonhoeffer) 330

331 existence Being 3.4 religiousless Christianity (City of God) Harvey Cox The Secular City

332 ( ) (). 332

333 . 333

334 334

335 (Caste) ( ) 335

336 () () ---- (varna) (jati) (Vedism) (Brahmanism) (Hinduism) (Vedas) (Rgveda) A. L. Basham 1300B.C B.C B.C. 500 B.C. (BrAhmaNas 1000 B.C. 600 B.C.) (UpaniSads, 800 B.C. 300B.C.) ( 1300B.C. 1000B.C.) ( 1000B.C. 300B.C.) (brahmana) (ksatriya) (vaizyas) (sudras) ( ) 336

337 337 ( ) 400B.C. 200B.C. (MAnava Dharma-ZAstra) A.D (BhagavadgItA) B.C.150 A.D B.C. A.D.100 ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) (Sakka) (Kushan)

338 (Maurya, 322B.C. 183B.C.) (200B.C. A.D.300) (Megasthenes) (AZoka) () (PuruSa-sUkta) ( ) (Brahman) (Atman) (BrahmA) 338

339 ( ) (KRSNa) (purusa) (yoga) (karma yoga) (bhakti yoga) (jjana yoga) ---- (Jainism) (Mughals, A.D ) (Akbar, A.D ) 339

340 (Kabir, ) (Nanak, ) (Sikhism) ( ) 1822 (Brahma Samaj) ( Brahma Samaj of India) (Kashab Chandra Sen) (Sadaran Brahma Samaj) 1867 (Prarthana Samaj) (M. G. Ranade) 1875 (Aryan Samaj) (Dayahnand Saraswati) 1897 (Ramakrishna Mission) (Vivekananda) (Mahatma Gandhi, ) (harijan) (Anagarika Dharmapala, )1891 (Maha Bodhi Society) (Bhimrao Ramji Ambedkar, ) 340

341 (1) RSS VHP (Atal Bihari Vajpayee) RSS(2) (3) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( )

342 ( ) 342

343 religionre ligion 343

344 却 344

345

346 1+1=2 346

347 347

348

349

350 18 9 却 350

351 351

352 352

353

354 NHK 354

355 e e 355

356 2 356

357 357

358 7/11-7/16 7/ ( 1988 ) 9 358