宋、明之際的醫史與「儒醫」

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1 中央研究院歷史語言研究所集刊第七十八本, 第一分出版日期 : 民國九十六年三月人間之魅漢唐之間精魅故事析論林富士 * 中國傳統社會所認知或建構的鬼神世界 ( 或是所謂的超自然世界 ) 中, 除了有大家所習知的天神地祇人鬼之外, 其實還有所謂的魅而透過相關語詞的分析, 我們發現, 中國傳統社會對於魅的種種認知和觀念, 基本上在先秦時期便已萌芽, 到了兩漢時期, 則更形成熟三組最基本的概念和詞彙, 亦即魑魅鬼魅和精魅 ( 老魅物魅 ), 也在這個時期出現, 其意涵也大致確立基本上, 魅是指某種物怪 ( 非人類 ); 是罕見神祕怪異之物, 而且是會帶來禍害迷惑疾病災難煩擾的妖物凶物不過, 這三組概念, 相互之間, 也有一些明顯的差異, 其中, 最主要的有二點 : 第一是關於魅的出沒之地魑魅最早是在異域遠方, 後來則進入中國的山林川澤之地鬼魅似乎也在荒遠偏僻之處活動但精魅則遍及各地, 山林原野都市鄉村家室都有其形蹤第二是關於魅的形體魑魅是有特定形體的生物, 其形大都是動物 ( 獸形 ) 或人獸合體鬼魅則是無形或能隱形之物, 無特定形體可言至於精魅則千變萬化, 萬物 ( 包括人 ) 都能變成精魅, 早期的觀念是以物化為人形為主, 但後來則認為萬物之間都有可能互相轉化其形, 而且能隱能見這種差異, 不僅僅是語詞之間在語義上的分殊, 尚且牽涉到時代觀念的變遷換句話說, 大約到了東漢中晚期 ( 西元第二世紀 ) 以後, 精魅的概念逐漸成為中國傳統社會對於魅的主流看法至於精魅是在什麼樣的情境下現形或變化, 精魅如何侵擾或危害人類, 什麼樣的物才會成為精魅這一類的問題, 中國傳統文獻似乎從東漢末年開始才逐漸有比較具體的論述因此, 本文便以漢唐之際的精魅故事為主要根據, 探討當時人如何建構魅的新形象 * 中央研究院歷史語言研究所 -107-

2 透過四十一則精魅故事的分析, 我們發現, 當時人認為, 無論男女老少貧富貴賤士農工商, 任何人隨時隨地都可能和精魅有所遭逢精魅的原形則包括野生的獸類 ( 狐狸鹿等 ) 蛇類昆蟲( 蚱蜢蠍子 ) 水域的動物( 鼉龜黿鼈獺鯉魚等 ) 植物( 大樹 ) 家中的牲畜( 豬雞犬等 ) 和日常用品 ( 枕屐等 ), 幾乎任何有生命或無生命的物都可能因年代久遠或特質的稟賦情境而變化成魅甚至連死人也能化為魅不過, 仍以野生的動物佔絕大多數絕大多數精魅都可以變化成人形, 甚至假冒某人所熟悉的親屬配偶, 但也有一些只能隱形而具有人的語言飲食能力, 或是具有人形但欠缺完整的人類器官而無論精魅的原形與變形是什麼, 和精魅遭逢之人, 有一些毫髮未傷 ; 有一些只受到輕微的驚嚇迷惑或干擾 ; 有一些會被截斷頭髮 ; 有一些會受到魅惑而和精魅交歡, 男性有時會因此失精而亡, 女性則大多會因此生病, 一般稱之為病邪魅病不過, 也有一些男子和精魅產生一夜情, 或是和它們寢處數月數年之久, 甚至讓精魅懷孕產子, 本身卻不會受到任何損傷事實上, 在當時人的觀念中, 人和仙神鬼也都可以有異性異類之間的婚戀性愛關係同時, 他們也相信, 即使精魅隨時隨地都可能現身害人, 但是, 一般人都可以使用一些尋常之物 ( 如鏡子火犬刀劍 ), 令精魅現出原形或加以捕殺逐離此外, 也可以向巫覡術士道士僧人尋求救助, 他們可以使用更複雜的法術 ( 如卜筮厭勝符咒等 ) 診察魅的原形並加以誅除若被魅所害而生病, 也可以尋求醫者的療治因此, 純粹就精魅觀念來看, 當時人對於人外 (extra-human) 的世界顯得比前人更加恐懼, 對於自己的感官經驗和其所及的世界也更欠缺自信他們害怕一切陌生的遙遠的異域異物和異類, 也懷疑所有熟悉的周遭的人和物換句話說, 在他們的心靈中, 任何生物和無生物都可能變成精魅, 任何人都可能是精魅的化身精魅與物怪所帶來的傷害不再只存在於荒野的山林和陌生的水域, 危險的時刻也不再只限於昏暗和黑夜的場合這種變化, 或許可以稱之為精魅或凶惡的人間化或日常生活化不過, 當時人面對這樣的精魅世界, 也建構出一套防衛和對抗機制他們相信, 人的力量還是大於精魅, 只需一些尋常的器物和方法就可以應付精魅, 而且, 各個宗教也提供了一些除魅之道, 可以救助逢魅之人因此, 有些精魅不僅不曾對人造成任何傷害, 反遭人類殺害換句話說, 精魅的世界也許變得比以前更恐怖, 但人的武裝也比以前更精進, 足以應付新的挑戰, 可以馴服生活中的精魅關鍵詞 : 鬼神宗教魅妖怪故事 -108-

3 Spirits among Humans: Tales of Jingmei (Fairies) in Early Medieval China Fu-shih Lin Institute of History and Philology, Academia Sinica Traditional Chinese society constructed a spiritual or supernatural world made up of Heavenly Gods, Spirits of the Earth, and Human Ghosts. In addition to these beings were also the so-called mei 魅, which are somewhat similar to the fairies or monsters in Western civilization. This philological study of terms associated with mei reveals that the notion of mei can be traced to pre-qin 秦 China (pre-221 BC). Three basic terms referring to these beings emerged during the Han Dynasty (202 BC-AD 220), namely chimei 魑魅 (monster), guimei 鬼魅 (ghostly monster) and jingmei 精魅 (fairy), and it was during the Han Dynasty that the meanings of these terms reached maturity and became more firmly established. Basically, mei refers to a type of non-human monstrous creature; Regarded as goblins or demons that brought about accidents, confusion, illness, disasters, and disruption, these beings were seen as rare, mysterious, and strange. Yet the three concepts of chimei, guimei, and jingmei clearly differ. Among these distinctions, two stand out as the most significant: first, the places in which the mei appeared, and second, the physical form that the mei adopted. Chimei were originally thought to have existed in foreign lands or remote places, and it was only later that they entered the mountains and rivers of China proper. Guimei seemed to linger in wild and remote places. Jingmei, however, were scattered about everywhere and could be found in forests, fields, cities, villages, and houses. These three types of mei also took on different physical forms. Chimei were creatures with particular forms, mostly those of animals or creatures that were halfhuman and half-beast. Guimei were invisible beings or beings capable of remaining invisible without adopting a particular physical shape. Jingmei could assume all kinds of forms. Every being (including humans) could be transformed into jingmei. In early China it was believed that non-human beings could take on human form, but later it was thought that every being could assume any other form and could be visible or invisible. This -180-

4 人間之魅漢唐之間精魅故事析論 difference is not merely semantic but relates to the evolution of the very concept of mei. In China after the second century, the term mei gradually came to be used primarily to mean jingmei. Only after the second century do traditional Chinese documents present more concrete descriptions of the circumstances under which jingmei revealed their original form or changed their form, of how they attacked or endangered humans, and of the types of beings that could become jingmei. This article intends to explore how people in early medieval China constructed this new image of mei based principally on the tales of jingmei. Through an analysis of 41 jingmei tales, we discovered that in the Six Dynasties (3rd- 6th centuries), people believed that anyone could encounter jingmei anywhere and at any time, regardless of gender, age, social class, and occupation. Gingmei s original physical forms included wild beasts (foxes, wild cats and deer etc.), snakes, insects (grasshoppers, scorpions), aquatic creatures (water lizards, turtles, otters, carp etc.), plants (large trees), domestic animals (pigs, chicken and dogs etc.) and commonly used objects (pillows and wooden shoes). Any living or lifeless being could be transformed into jingmei under certain circumstances because of their age-old existence or natural talents. Even the dead could transform themselves into jingmei. The majority of jingmei, however, took the form of wild animals. Most jingmei could transform into humans, and even assume the identity of a relative or partner. Some remained invisible, or could only speak a human language and eat like humans; others had human form but lacked certain body parts. Some people who encountered jingmei were left entirely unharmed. Others were only frightened, confused or harassed. Some victims, however, had their hair chopped off, and others were lured into having sex with jingmei. In some cases men died because of the loss of sperm. Most women fell ill with what was generally called a demonic illness or a fairy illness. However, some men had one-night stands with jingmei, or slept with them for several months or years, and jingmei even became pregnant and had babies. According to the stories, they seemed to have been left unharmed. It is worth noting that in the Six Dynasties, people believed that humans could have loving or sexual relationships with jingmei, gods, or ghosts who were members of the opposite sex or of a different species

5 At the same time, however, jingmei also induced much fear, since people believed that jingmei could appear anywhere and at any time to harm humans. Luckily, ordinary people could use some commonly found objects such as mirrors, fire, dogs, knives and swords to force the spirits reveal their original forms, and exorcise and kill them. In addition, people could also seek the help of spiritual sources such as occult art practitioners, Taoist priests, or Buddhist monks. These spiritual experts could then employ more complicated occult arts such as divination and incantations to determine the original forms of the jingmei and kill them. If people were harmed by jingmei and became sick, they could go to see doctors for therapy. An examination of the conception of jingmei in early medieval China reveals broader cultural and historical significance. People in early medieval China seemed to have a greater fear of the extra-human world when compared with their predecessors. They lacked confidence in their sensory experience and the world they encountered. They feared all strange and remote places, different beings, and different species. They also lived in doubt of their acquaintances and the objects around them: They believed that any living creature or lifeless being could transform into jingmei in human form. Unpredictability in everyday life increased since the threat of encountering jingmei could no longer be clearly delineated: Jingmei no longer only lurked in wild forests and strange waters, and moments of danger were no longer limited to darkness, dusk, and dawn. This change may perhaps be termed the humanization or normalization of the concept of jingmei. Facing the world of jingmei, people in the Six Dynasties nevertheless constructed mechanisms to defend against and resist the interference of jingmei. They believed that the power which humans wielded was greater than that of the jingmei, and that by implementing commonly used objects and methods, jingmei could be driven away, exorcised, or eliminated. Moreover, jingmei could also be eliminated by religious means. Consequently, some jingmei which had never harmed people were killed by humans. Literary sources from early medieval China indicate that people believed that the unpredictability of encountering jingmei had rendered the world more ominous than in the past. However, equipped with more advanced weapons, they remained optimistic that they could meet these new challenges and keep jingmei at bay. Keywords: spirits, jingmei (fairies), mei, monster, tales -182-

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~ ~ ~ 33 4 2014 467 478 Studies in the History of Natural Sciences Vol. 33 No. 4 2014 030006 20 20 N092 O6-092 A 1000-1224 2014 04-0467-12 200 13 Roger Bacon 1214 ~ 1292 14 Berthold Schwarz 20 Luther Carrington