Contents 1 Introduction... 1 1.1 Origination of Well Logging.... 1 1.2 What Is Well Logging?.... 1 1.3 Development of Well Logging... 3 1.3.1 Resistivity Logs.... 3 1.3.2 Sonic Logs... 5 1.3.3 Nuclear Logging... 5 1.4 Use of Logs... 7 2 Electrical Logging... 9 2.1 The Foundation of Electrical Resistivity... 9 2.1.1 Resistivity... 9 2.1.2 Archie Formula... 12 2.1.3 Electrical Properties of Rocks and Brines... 13 2.1.4 Borehole Environment... 14 2.1.5 Conclusions... 15 2.2 Spontaneous Potential Logging... 15 2.2.1 The SP Log... 18 2.2.2 Electrochemical Component of the SP.... 19 2.2.3 Spontaneous Potential (SP) Tool... 21 2.2.4 R w from the SP... 23 2.2.5 Log Example of the SP... 23 2.2.6 Applications of SP.... 25 2.3 Resistivity Logs... 26 2.3.1 Normal Devices... 27 2.3.2 Focused Tools... 29 2.3.3 Induction Tools... 35 2.3.4 Array Induction Tools (AIT)... 41 2.3.5 FMI (Full Borehole Microresistivity Image Logging)... 43 2.3.6 ARI (Azimuthal Resistivity Imager)... 45 ix
x Contents 2.4 Dipmeter Logging.... 47 2.4.1 Principle... 48 2.4.2 Measurement Process.... 48 2.4.3 SHDT... 50 2.4.4 Colored Dip Patterns... 51 2.4.5 Results Presentation.... 53 2.4.6 Stick Plot.... 54 2.4.7 Azimuth Frequency Plots.... 55 2.5 Summary... 56 3 Sonic Logs... 59 3.1 The Foundational Principle of Acoustic Logs... 60 3.1.1 Elastic Properties of Rocks... 60 3.1.2 Acoustic Waves.... 61 3.1.3 Sound Wave Propagation, Reflection, and Refraction... 62 3.2 Sonic Log... 64 3.2.1 Principle... 64 3.2.2 Borehole-Compensated Sonic (BHC).... 68 3.2.3 Long Spacing Sonic (LSS)... 70 3.2.4 Dipole Shear Sonic Imaging (DSI)... 73 3.2.5 Interpretation... 78 3.2.6 Environmental and Other Effects... 79 3.3 Acoustic Wave Amplitude Logging... 81 3.3.1 Introduction... 81 3.3.2 Cement Bond Logging (CBL)... 81 3.3.3 Variable Density Log (VDL)... 83 3.3.4 Cement Evaluation Tool (CET)... 89 3.3.5 Segmented Bond Tool (SBT)... 90 3.4 Ultrasonic Imager Logs (USI).... 90 3.5 UltraSonic Borehole Imager (UBI)... 96 3.5.1 Introduction... 96 3.5.2 Image Presentations... 98 3.5.3 Interpretation... 99 3.5.4 Applications.... 101 3.6 Circumferential Borehole Imaging Log (CBIL).... 108 3.6.1 Tools... 108 3.6.2 Acoustic Imaging Tool Interpretation Generalities... 110 4 Nuclear Logs... 115 4.1 Gamma Ray Logs.... 115 4.1.1 Rudimentary of Radioactivity... 115 4.1.2 Radioactivity of Rocks... 116 4.1.3 Interaction Between Formation and GR.... 117 4.1.4 Gamma Log.... 122
Contents xi 4.1.5 Spectral Gamma Ray Device... 123 4.1.6 Measurement of Gamma Radiation... 127 4.1.7 Applications of GR... 129 4.2 Interaction Between Formation and Neutron.... 132 4.2.1 Fast Neutron Scattering... 132 4.2.2 Thermal Neutron Interaction... 134 4.3 Basic Definitions for Neutron Logging... 137 4.3.1 Bulk Density (q b )... 137 4.3.2 Electron Density (P e )... 137 4.3.3 Photoelectric Absorption Index (P e )... 138 4.3.4 Bulk Photoelectric Absorption Index (U).... 138 4.3.5 Hydrogen Index (H x )... 138 4.4 Nuclear Logging... 140 4.4.1 Borehole Compensated Density Tools... 140 4.4.2 Litho-Density Tool... 141 4.4.3 Physical Principle of the Tool... 141 4.4.4 Applications.... 141 4.4.5 Fluid Effects... 144 4.4.6 Schlumberger Neutron Tools... 145 4.4.7 CNL Log as a Gas Locator... 147 4.5 Thermal Neutron Decay Time Logs... 151 4.5.1 Introduction... 151 4.5.2 Measurement Principle... 152 4.5.3 Log-Inject-Log.... 154 4.5.4 Log Presentation... 154 4.6 C/O.... 155 5 Nuclear Magnetic Resonance... 161 5.1 Fundamental of Nuclear Magnetic Resonance (NMR)... 161 5.1.1 Longitudinal Relaxation, T 1... 163 5.1.2 Transverse Relaxation, T 2, and Spin Dephasing.... 164 5.1.3 Spin Echoes.... 164 5.1.4 Relaxation and Diffusion in Magnetic Gradients... 166 5.2 A Brief History of Nuclear Magnetic Resonance Tool... 168 5.3 LWD NMR.... 168 5.4 Applications of Nuclear Magnetic Resonance... 170 5.4.1 Porosity and Free Fluid Porosity... 173 5.4.2 Pore Size Distribution and Permeability Estimation... 176 5.5 Summary... 178 6 Production Logging (PL)... 181 6.1 Definition Production Logging... 181 6.2 Spinner Flowmeter Logging... 183
xii Contents 6.3 Fluid-Identification Logs.... 187 6.3.1 Fluid-Density Logs... 188 6.3.2 Gradiomanometer Tool... 188 6.3.3 Nuclear Fluid-Density... 189 6.3.4 Temperature Tools.... 190 6.3.5 Capacitance Logs.... 193 6.3.6 Radioactive Water-Hold up Log... 193 6.4 Radioactive-Tracer Logging... 193 6.4.1 Introduction... 193 6.4.2 Tools and Operations.... 194 6.4.3 Running a Tracer-Loss Log... 195 6.4.4 Tracer-Loss Log Interpretation.... 196 6.5 Other Production Well Logging... 197 6.5.1 Pulsed Neutron Logs for Flow Profiling... 197 6.5.2 Repeat Formation Tester... 199 7 Logging-While-Drilling (LWD).... 211 7.1 What Is MWD/LWD?.... 211 7.2 Schlumberger Scope LWD Series... 213 7.2.1 EcoScope.... 213 7.2.2 PeriScope.... 215 7.2.3 StethoScope... 216 7.3 LWD Technology of Halliburton... 217 7.4 Integrated MWD and LWD Instruments of Baker Hughes... 219 7.4.1 AziTrak Deep Azimuthal Resistivity LWD System.... 219 7.4.2 OnTrak Integrated MWD and LWD System... 221 7.5 Resistivity Measurements While Drilling... 222 7.5.1 Resistivity at the Bit... 222 7.5.2 Azimuthal Measurements.... 225 7.6 Density Measurements While Drilling... 226 7.7 Nuclear Measurements While Drilling... 229 7.8 Sonic Measurements While Drilling... 232 7.9 Geosteering.... 233 8 Rock Mechanics.... 237 8.1 Basic Stress and Strain Analysis... 238 8.1.1 Static Stress and Strain Relation... 238 8.1.2 Parameters of Rock Elastic Properties... 241 8.2 Natural Fracture Classification and Stress Analysis.... 243 8.2.1 Natural Fractures... 244 8.2.2 Geological Classifications of Natural Fractures... 244 8.2.3 Fracture Detection... 246 8.2.4 Visual Identification of Fractures... 253
Contents xiii 8.3 Critical Pressure and Stress Relationship in the Borehole... 254 8.3.1 Mohr Coulomb Failure Criterion.... 255 8.3.2 Stress Relationship at the Wellbore... 257 8.3.3 Estimating Critical Borehole Pressure in Vertical Wells... 258 8.3.4 Critical Pore Pressure... 259 8.3.5 Porosity as Strength Indicator to Evaluate Sand Production... 260 8.3.6 Estimation of Unconfined Compressive Rock Strength from Porosity Data... 261 8.4 Rock Drillability... 261 8.4.1 Technical Steps: Determination of Lithology.... 263 8.4.2 Rock Strength from Sonic Log... 265 8.5 Borehole Stability... 267 9 The Advanced Well Logging Technology... 271 9.1 Eclips-5700.... 271 9.1.1 Eclips-5700 Well Logging System... 271 9.1.2 Eclips-5700 Imaging Logging Instrument... 273 9.2 Excell-2000 Well Logging System... 275 9.2.1 System Software... 276 9.2.2 System Configuration... 277 9.2.3 System Features.... 277 9.2.4 Applications.... 278 9.3 Sondex Production Logging System... 278 9.3.1 Flowmeter... 278 9.3.2 Single Gauge Quartz Pressure Tool (QPS)... 281 9.3.3 Platinum Resistance Thermometer (PRT)... 281 9.3.4 Enhanced Capacitance Water Holdup Tool (CWH)... 282 9.3.5 Fluid Density Radioactive (FDR)... 282 9.3.6 Multifinger Imaging Tool (MIT 60 Finger)... 283 9.4 Cased-Hole Resistivity Measurements (CHFR)... 284 10 Integrated Interpretation of Well Logging Data... 289 10.1 Reservoir Classification.... 290 10.2 Formation Evaluation... 296 10.2.1 Identification of Permeable and Non-permeable Zones from Logs... 296 10.2.2 Determine and Divide the Formations into Water Bearing and Hydrocarbon... 297 10.3 Method to Determine Lithology: M N PLOT... 298 10.4 U maa MID Plot... 299 10.5 Resistivity Versus Porosity Crossplot (Pickett Map)... 301
xiv Contents 10.6 Porosity Determination in Complex Conditions... 302 10.6.1 Neutron-Density Crossplots... 303 10.6.2 Sonic-Neutron Crossplots... 304 10.6.3 Sonic-Density Crossplot.... 304 10.7 Resistivity Ratio Methods to Identify Fluid Type... 307 10.8 Permeability Calculation... 313 10.8.1 Permeability from POR... 314 10.8.2 Permeability from NMR... 314 10.8.3 Permeability from the RFT... 315 10.9 Structure Analysis.... 316 10.9.1 Tensile Stress.... 316 10.9.2 Compressive Stress... 317 10.9.3 Structural Analysis from Dipmeters... 318 10.10 Multi-well Integrated Interpretation.... 319 Appendix A: Vocabulary... 325 Appendix B: Nomenclature ( 名词术语 )... 343 Appendix C: Conversion Factors and Tables... 347 Appendix D: Typical Parameters Physical Value... 349 References... 351
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