...3...5... 6... 7... 10...11... 12 1978...13 1983...19 1984...30 60... 30... 31... 31... 32... 32... 33... 33...35... 35... 36... 37... 38... 39 1986...40... 40... 41... 42... 43... 44... 45 1986...47... 48... 49 1 1990 1
... 50... 51... 51 1987...53... 53... 55... 56... 57... 58...60... 60... 61 COMMANDISM... 62... 63... 65... 66... 67?...69... 69... 70... 72 1989 6...74... 75... 75... 76... 77... 77... 78... 79 2
1989 1989 6 20 89 6 3 4 1960 3
80 4
: 1988 2 10 John Elster 1840 1978 50 1972 1978 2 5
1980 1978 5 6 1980 600 chao 3 4 1984 1978 200 12 15 1983 3 3 6
1984 4 7
1 2 8 Archie Wright 8
50 1 2 3 1985 1985 3 5 2 5 84 85 84 84 1984 40500 1985 150 9
1985 10 1988 1988 9 1978 1979 1982 12 1983 1980 1987 1983 1987 10
Herb Ruth Gamberg 1988 9 Hugh Deane 1989 8 1988 30% 1920 1930 49 1985 4 4 1. " "New York Review of Books, February 2, 1989, pp.3-4. 11
5 5 2. The Alexander Epstein Memorial Lecture, University of Michigan, October 20, 1988, p. 5. 12
6 1978 1978 Great Ridge Hill 1958 1979 Great Ridge 1945 1950 1954 250000 1971 1971 6 Geo 1980 8 13
100 30 Li Hongchang 1/3 20 60 1977 90 1979 Fuxun Kailan 19 50 Li Lingchiao 1978 25 28 20 14
Congdao Chang 1966 1970 1976 Chang Chang 13 Li Hongen1967 Shi Shuangguei Wang Jinhong Wang 1969 1971 Luan Wang Jinhong Wang Jinhong Wang Jinhong 1966 15
Jinhong 1967 1971 Wang Jinhong Wang Jinhong Jinhong Jinhong Jinhong Jinhong Jinhong Jinhong Jinhong 1958 Jinhong 1973 Wang Jinhong Wang Jinhong 1970 28 1973 48 1974 601979 100 Jinhong YellowMill Shen Majin 100 12 70 Wang Jinhong [0] conclusion of a national party congress Jinhong 16
Jinhong 250 1 Wang Jinhong 1977 Jinhong 26 100 1979 100 25 14 17
14 1978 Jinhong Chang Jinhong 15 Jinghong Manfu 12 Chou-fa, Wende Jinhong Chang yanjiu Zhangwenying Shen 50 Jinhong Jinhong 2000 18
1983 7 1983 1979 17 4 1979 50000 1983 3 1981 1979 20 30 8 1977 1978 1952 7 Monthly Review 35 1983 11 6 19
20 10 9 5 15 2 5 1 2 5 1980 30% 30% 40% 1949 1952 30 1979 2 20
1977................ 180,000 1978 ( )........... 147,500 1979 ( )....... 220,000 1980 ( )....... 251,000 1981 ( )....... 320,000 1982 ( )....... 359,000 1979 1956 8 22.5 2.8 1/2 1982 91.74 545 11 679 13.5 2392 47.84 50% 22.5 498 2 10 20300 406 960 600 800 15 4800 600 2 1979 520 100 1983 500 100 5.4 1 700 20 300 60 4 3000 1982 8 42 7.............. 270............... 324............. 47............. 12 sweat potatoes.......... 61 21
........... 12 10 726 20 2000 1000 400 50 20 3 16 30 29 10000 1250 6000 3 3 100% 4 500 100 4 500 15 Yang Chingli 60 100 7300 31875 4.5 2/3 10 3500 83 2500 1000 3 8 3 41000 2000 4.5 24 1000 15 17 15 3 1982 8 10812 23% 58.2 17 65 196 57500 30% 22
900 100 2.5 50 146 125 89000 15000 1978 51 1982 118 1 2 1978 4 3 4 1979 3000-4000 1979 100 0.5 1978 6000 1982 49000 3 5 2000 3 5 100 800-1000 200 1000 23
1982 30000 50% 80% 50% 1978 60 24
1958 25 25
1956 Liao Luyen 5% 1950 50 27000 26
700 50 1021 (1) (2) (3) 50000 (4) 30000 1% 4.8% (5) 30000 (6) (7) (8) (9) (10) 700 6 30 30 40 300 17 3 200 17 133 47 80 180 72 2.8 1000 15 2 4900 1-1.5 2 0.3 1-2 27
3.2 2 20000 10000 20000 15000 5000 345 Gaojen 28
95% 88% 90% 29
1984 8 1984 1958 1980 1 1000 3000 1949 1962 60 60 3 15 15 / 8 1984 1985 113 30
6 8 98 ---- 12,000 125 ---- 31
10 Horse Square 45 750 100 80 12 10 1 =6.07 12000 10 15 4 32
gardens 15 15 carts 10% 20% 8 1 10 1 8 sorghum liquor 1983 700 250 20 10 20 30 30% 1984 1 3 33
1 5000 34
9 1950 4 1977 200 1984 1000 3% 9 1985 8 Inner Mongolian Journal of Social Science 35
50% 3 50% / 1 30 1 2 38 42 45 300-550*10 3 16 115-130*10 3 17 4-8% 42 29-31% 2 26 56 30 58*10 3 16 18*10 3 17 28 1001.4*10 6% 1.0*10 3 22% 3 / / 3225 140-270 130 1300 1030385-485 -1405 5320 325 4926 1084 14 20.2 1/3 2/3 1/3 1/3 36
a b 30 1984 50% 18~30 37
1-2 6 On hill land, stock tend to run fence lines making paths that erode badly when pounded by rain 38
1 2 6 39 50% 5 39
1986 10 1986 1986 5 1895 150 Armand Hammer 11 10 1986 11 1982 40
leveling and transferring leveling and transferring 60 5 120 1980 20 6 4 25 25 150 50 25 4 10 3 5 1.5 41
1611 5680 455 5442 bushel 1978 46 1979 71 1980 88 1981 96 1982 103 1983 112 1984 118 1985 118+ silk filiatures 333 418 1978 66 42
10 10 Shanyin 8000 1000 500 2 3 1 2000 30 30 26 1.5 1.5 3 12 shipping taxes 20 license fees load taxes 20 10000 181 Jianhua 13 43
26 12 10 10 50000 20 Jianhua The place was functioning as the most successful collectives functioned elsewhere in China in the past 2 1985 3000 1700 600 1100 1988 7 1 1 1 3 1 3000 17 5 300 50 10 the machinery people 1984 1985 12 12 1986 44
10000 3000 30 20000 Atakachi 3000 10000 5 10000 2000 3000 1000 20000 1000 waste slopes 100 1983 45
46
1986 12 1986 1986-90 1. 10 0.037 0.08 (conventional till) ( ) 11.40 Yeji village, Huang County 15.00 12 1985 3 This article is a revised and shortened version of a letter written to Neville Maxwell, one of the founders of the Society for Anglo-Chinese Understanding, in March 1985. 47
2. ( 10 ) 0.077 ( ) 0.156 ( ) ( ) 38 Yeji village, Huang County 33 1 142-405 2 213-438 1986 10 6 6 15 1600 1990 473 1350 1990 213 48
1 2 3 30% 15 10-100 heavy discingdeep chiseling 40-100 1000-2000 1000 4000 15 49
(a) / (b) (c) (d) (e) (f) (g) (h) 30 50
1985 1986 1 2 3 4 600 100 150 3.72 7 7 8% 22-33 22-33 20 3 30 the Agricultural Stabilization and Conservation Service 70 the Production Credit Association 7 51
30 50 30 ding xing 52
1987 13 1987 80 1983 1987 9 17 1987 6 1979 1978 185000 1986 650000 1978 186 1985 650 1986 608 1986 490000 1978 1978 1.6 1 3.7 1 6-7 3.7 1978 9 1 2 4 1 11 9 1985 1987 27 1978 1986 60%-75% Brigade 13 1988 3 Monthly Review 39, no. 10 (March 1988) 53
50 50 186+50+50=286 572 650 14 1986 630000 306000 504 608 306000 1983 1982 12 700 3 1987 8 270 1978 1986 1978 200 1986 250 14 54
75 25 50 75 1978 40% 1978 1978 185000 1983 1986 350000 630 000 280000 140000 1978 45000 1983 10 000 20000 7000 5000 40000 50000 92000 2 1971 1 1 7 1983 668 508 1983 1984 1985 1986 1987 ( ) ( ) 420 / 470 / 420 / 157 /( ) 55
1982 310 / 1983 668 / 1975 578 1976 591 1977 690 1983 506 1977 1978 70 80 1983 1973 1979 1982 1986 1987............................................ ( ) 314 /( ) 461 / 211 /( ) 170 /( ) ( ) 1977 1979...................... 493 / 444 / 1981 1982 1986 1987................................. ( ) 255 / 255 /( ) 224 /( ) ( ) 1/4 25% 1983 90,000 110,000 350,000 1987 60 70 1987 1980 1983 56
1979 1979 60 60 [0] 70 30 40 30 30 40 30 [0] 13 57
[0] 1983 1 3 1986 600 100 72 1984 1985 3000 1987 15 1987 10 31 90 15 1988 2 2 1987 40120 58
1987 506 174 88 88 82 41 0.7 504 64 1987 23 1983 9 90 8 10 59
16 1980 30% 30% 40% 30% 40% 30% 40% 30% 40% 30% 2 4 2 4 40%3 2 5 6 1984 4 1985 1984 4 1985 1983 1988 3.5 3.8 11 345 1978 grain is the key link 16 1988 3 Herb Ruth Gansberg 1988 9 Hugh Deane 60
20 607080 42.8% 50 30-40-30, 50 20 6070 30% 42.8% 1988 1953 1977 4.27% 1959 116500 75 1979 53500 1950 1.6 1 1979 0.5 1 1960 35 1 1979 5 17 17 1988 11 Ching Pao-yu, "Chinas Rural Reform and Grain," unpub. ms. 61
7.3% 1978 11.4% 49% 56% 164% 18 1980 1953-1977 4.27% 1980-1985 1.3% 1978 11.5% 1980-1985 6.3% 1985-1987 4% 70 80 1/4 19 37.7%-60% 22% 167% 100%-200% 20 accumulation funds 20 40.2% 22.5% Commandism 80 : 62 [0] 18 19 20 62
1% 1983 1 1/3 63
labor productivity Great Leap utopianism voluntarism commandism gigantism egalitarianism Maurice Meisner Maoist 21 1949 Party Organization Department The predominance of Mao was never more than marginal 21 241 1977 Mao's China (New York: The Free Press, 1977), p. 241. 64
20 2 5 100 10 "one stroke of the knife" 58 60 70 80 65
30 80 80 1949 60 22 60 22 1967 7 8 66
50 1950 25 6 [0]. 1974 20 20 30 57 6070 GNP 100 GNP GNP GNP 67
1979 10 68
?? 20 30 20 --- ---- ---- ---- ( ) ( ) 30 50 ( ) 69
10 30 10 20 30 50 70 30 ( ) 20 80 ( ) ; 20 ---- 70
23 24 [ ] 25 23 1988 12 10 Hua, Zhang, and Luo, cited in "Top Economists Look Back Over Decade of Reform," The China Daily, four-part series, December 1988, pt. 1. 24 1987 9 12 7 25 James Petras, "Contradictions of Market Socialism in China," unpub. ms., 1987, pp. 5-6. 71
26 1950 26 1988 12 10 72
27 27 Petras, "Contradictions," p. 1 73
1989 6 28 1989 6 6 3 4 3 3 T 3 6 34 300 3 200 8000 28 William Hinton 1989 7 13 Monthly Review Press1990 The Great Reversal 74
8000 8000 220V 10 2 8000 300000 1030 27 Nightline 2000 75
4500 11 100 4 100 5 18 40 50 33 5 200 250 6 50 5 200 1030 PUMCH 76
hollow bullets dumdum bullets 100 67 2000 5 20 21 38, 38 27 Sichuan rats 10 38 40 10 21 67 the Panda series of Chinese translations 7 4 BBC 77
74 70 10 10 10 3 2 5 1949 78
2 3 6 5 1 4 5 10 10 10 84 Adam Smith 6 3 4 79
80