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候遐崔
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1 Chapter 1 沈 (Room 318)

2 類臨 ( 料 ( 金料 ) 糧不 ( )

3 切率降 CO 2 量量綠 (HCFC) (HFC) 冷 (HFC) 冷

4 Image of the largest Antarctic ozone hole ever recorded (September 2006)

5 Montreal Protocol ( ) The Montreal Protocol on Substances That Deplete the Ozone Layer is an international treaty designed to protect the ozone layer ( ) by phasing out the production of a number of substances believed to be responsible for ozone depletion. The treaty was opened for signature on September 16, 1987 and entered into force on January 1, 1989 followed by a first meeting in Helsinki, May It has undergone seven revisions, in 1990 (London), 1991 (Nairobi), 1992 (Copenhagen), 1993 (Bangkok), 1995 (Vienna), 1997 (Montreal), and 1999 (Beijing). "Perhaps the single most successful international agreement to date...".

6 - The Montreal Protocol has led to reductions in the emissions of CFCs, atmospheric concentrations of the most significant compounds have been declining. By 2015, the Antarctic ozone hole would have reduced by only 1 million km² out of 25 (Newman et al., 2004).

7 Complete recovery of the Antarctic ozone layer will not occur until the year 2050 or later. Work has suggested that a detectable (and statistically significant) recovery will not occur until around With ozone levels recovering to 1980 levels by around 2068.

8 冷數冷類 R-11 (CFC, CCl 3 F) R-12 (CFC, CCl 2 F 2 ) R-115 (CFC) R-22 (HCFC, CHClF 2 ) R-123 (HCFC, CHCl 2 CF 3 ) R-125 (HFC, CHF 2 CF 3 ) R-134a (HFC, CF 3 CFH 2 ) Ozone Depletion Number Not rated 0

9 Class I substances have an ozone depletion potential (ODP) of 0.2 or higher, and include halons, chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs ), methyl chloroform, carbon tetrachloride, and methyl bromide ( ). Class II substances are all hydrochlorofluorocarbons (HCFCs ), which were developed as transitional substitutes for Class I substances and which have many of the same uses as CFCs.

11 R-22 ( HCFC) 冷 R-407C 冷 (short term): R-32 (HFC 23%) + R-125 (HFC 25%) + R134a (HFC 52%) R-410A 冷 (long term): R-32 and R-125 (50/50 vt%)

12 Kyoto Protocol ( ) The Kyoto Protocol is a protocol to the international Framework Convention on Climate Change with the objective of reducing greenhouse gases ( ) in an effort to prevent anthropogenic climate change.

13 It was adopted for use on 11 December 1997 by the 3rd Conference of the Parties, which was meeting in Kyoto, and it entered into force on 16 February As of May 2008, 182 parties have ratified the protocol. Of these, 36 developed C.G. countries (plus the EU as a party in its own right) are required to reduce greenhouse gas emissions to the levels specified for each of them in the treaty (representing over 61.6% of emissions from Annex I countries), with three more countries intending to participate.

14 One hundred thirty-seven (137) developing countries have ratified ( ) the protocol, including Brazil, China and India, but have no obligation beyond monitoring and reporting emissions. The United States is the only developed country that has not ratified the treaty and is one of the significant greenhouse gas emitters.

15 切

16 1. 類

17 Energy Sources ( 類 ) (Primary Energy) Oil ( ) Natural Gas ( ) Coal ( ) Nuclear Energy ( ) Hydroelectricity ( 力 ) etc.

18 綠 (Renewable Energy) 1. Wind Energy, 2. Solar Energy, 3. Hydrogen Energy, 4. Bio-Energy 5. Hydroelectricity ( 力 ) 6. Geothermal Energy ( ) etc.

19 2. BP (British Petroleum ) Statistical Review of World Energy 2007

20 World primary energy consumption (2009) 力

21 Primary energy consumption patterns (2009) 力

22 Primary energy consumption per capita (2006 年 ) 北拉利

23 Primary energy consumption per capita (2009 年 )

24 Fossil fuel (oil, natural gas and coal) reservesto-production (R/P) ratios at end 2006 年 Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development Countries Europe and Middle East Section

25 Fossil fuel reserves-to-production (R/P) ratios at end of 2009

26 Reserves/Production (R/P) ratio - If the reserves remaining at the end of any year are divided by the production in that year, the result is the length of time that those remaining reserves would last if production were to continue at that level. R/R ratio = 年量 / 年量 ( 量 ) = 年

27 Oil reserves-to-production (R/P) ratios -2009

28 Proved oil reserves ( 量 ) at end 2006 Thousand million barrels (50 gallons/barrel)

29 Proved oil reserves ( 量 ) at end 2009

30 oil consumption ( 量 -2006) 北

31 oil consumption ( 量 -2009)

32 / Chart of crude oil prices since 1861

33 Importance of Oil and History of Its Development 1859 年 Pennsylvania ( ) ( )

34 Oil: Proved reserves 量

35 量 Thousand million barrels (50 gallons/barrel) 例年 Oil: Proved reserves at end 2009 Share of total R/P USA % 10.8 Canada % 28.3 Mexico % 10.8 Total North America % ~2008 年量 1400 ; 量

36 Oil: Proved reserves at end 2009 Share of total R/P Argentina Brazil Colombia Ecuador Peru Trinidad & Tobago Venezuela % 1.0% 0.1% 0.5% 0.1% 0.1% 12.9% * Other S. & Cent. America % 26.8 Total S. & Cent. America % 80.6

37 Proved reserves at end 2009 Share of total R/P Azerbaijan % 18.6 Denmark Italy Kazakhstan % 0.1% 3.0% Norway Romania Russian Federation Turkmenistan United Kingdom Uzbekistan % 5.6% 0.2% Other Europe & Eurasia % 14.9 Total Europe & Eurasia % 21.2

38 Proved reserves at end 2009 Share of total R/P Iran % 89.4 Iraq % * Kuwait % * Oman % 18.9 Qatar % 54.7 Saudi Arabia % 74.6 Syria % 18.2 United Arab Emirates % * Yemen % 24.5 Other Middle East 0.1 * 9.4 Total Middle East % 84.8

39 Proved reserves at end 2009 Share of total R/P Algeria % 18.5 Angola % 20.7 Chad % 20.9 Rep. of Congo (Brazzaville) % 19.4 Egypt % 16.2 Equatorial Guinea % 15.2 Gabon % 44.1 Libya % 73.4 Nigeria % 49.5 Sudan % 37.5 Tunisia 0.6 * 18.4 Other Africa 0.6 * 11 Total Africa % 36

40 Proved reserves at end 2009 Share of total R/P Australia Brunei China India Indonesia Malaysia Thailand Vietnam Other Asia Pacific % 0.1% 1.1% 0.4% 0.3% 0.4% 0.3% 0.1% Total Asia Pacific % 14.4 TOTAL WORLD ( ) % 45.7 年

41 Natural Gas: Proved reserves 量

42 Proved natural gas reserves at end 2009

43 Natural gas reserves-to-production (R/P) ratios

44 Natural gas consumption per capita

45 Proved reserves Trillion cubic metres (10 12 m 3 ) at end 2009 Share of total R/P USA % 11.7 Canada % 10.9 Mexico % 8.2 Total North America % 11.3

46 Proved reserves at end 2009 Share of total R/P Argentina % 9.1 Bolivia % 57.9 Brazil % 30.4 Colombia % 11.8 Peru % 91.3 Trinidad & Tobago % 10.7 Venezuela % * Other S. & Cent. America Total S. & Cent. America % 53.2

47 Proved reserves at end 2009 Share of total R/P Azerbaijan Denmark Germany Italy Kazakhstan Netherlands Norway Poland Romania Russian Federation Turkmenistan Ukraine United Kingdom Uzbekistan Other Europe & Eurasia % 1.0% 0.6% 1.1% 0.1% 0.3% 23.7% 4.3% 0.5% 0.2% 0.9% 0.2% * Total Europe & Eurasia % 64.8

48 Proved reserves at end 2009 Share of total R/P Bahrain Iran % * Iraq % * Kuwait % * Oman % 39.6 Qatar % * Saudi Arabia % * Syria % 48.9 United Arab Emirates % * Yemen % * Other Middle East Total Middle East % *

49 Proved reserves at end 2009 Share of total R/P Australia Bangladesh Brunei China India Indonesia Malaysia Myanmar Pakistan Papua New Guinea Thailand Vietnam Other Asia Pacific % 0.2% 0.2% 1.3% 0.6% 1.7% 1.3% 0.3% 0.5% 0.2% 0.2% 0.4% 0.2% * Total Asia Pacific TOTAL WORLD % 100.0% 37 年 62.8

50 Coal: Proved Reserves at end 2009 量

51 Proved coal reserves at end 2009

52 Coal production Coal consumption

53 Million tonnes 年 Anthracite ( ) and bituminous Subbituminous and Lignite Total Share of Total R/P ratio USA % 245 Canada % 105 Mexico % 109 Total North America % 236

54 Anthracite and bituminous Subbituminous and Lignite Total Share of Total R/P ratio Colombia % 95 Venezuela % 96 Other S. & Cent. America % * Total S. & Cent. America % 181

55 Total Share of Total R/P Bulgaria Czech Republic Germany Greece Hungary Kazakhstan Poland Romania Russian Federation Spain Turkey Ukraine UK Other Europe & Eurasia % 0.5% 0.8% 0.5% 0.4% 3.8% 0.9% 0.1% 19% 0.1% 0.5% 4.1% 2.3% * Total Europe & Eurasia % 236

56 Total Share of Total R/P South Africa % 122 Zimbabwe % 301 Other Africa % * Middle East % * Total Africa & Middle East % 131

57 Total Share of Total R/P Australia China India Indonesia Japan New Zealand North Korea Pakistan South Korea Thailand Vietnam Other Asia Pacific % 13.9% 7.1% 0.5% 0.1% 0.1% 0.3% 0.2% * Total Asia Pacific % 59 TOTAL WORLD % 119 年

58 Nuclear: Consumption 量

59 Nuclear energy consumption by region

60 1 ton oil ~ 8 barrels Million tonnes oil equivalent of total USA % Canada % Mexico % Total North America 年量 34.8% Argentina % Brazil % Chile Total S. & Cent. America %

61 Million tonnes oil equivalent of total Belgium & Luxembourg % Czech Republic % Finland % France % Germany % Russian Federation % Slovakia % Spain % Sweden % Switzerland % Ukraine % United Kingdom % Total Europe & Eurasia %

62 Million tonnes oil equivalent of total Iran Kuwait Qatar Saudi Arabia United Arab Emirates Other Middle East Total Middle East Algeria Egypt South Africa % Other Africa Total Africa %

63 Million tonnes oil equivalent of total Australia China % India % Indonesia Japan % Pakistan % Singapore South Korea % Taiwan % Thailand Other Asia Pacific Total Asia Pacific % TOTAL WORLD %

64 量 (10 9 W) 數

65 3. Renewable Energy

66 (I) Hydroelectricity ( 力 )

67 Hydroelectricity

68 Hydroelectricity consumption by region

69 (II) Wind Energy ( )

70 Wind power generating capacity growth accelerated to 31% in 2009, with capacity increasing by a record 38 GW to reach 160 GW ( 量 ) by the end of In 2009, China more than doubled installed wind capacity to 25.9 GW, overtaking Germany to take second place behind the USA in terms of cumulative installed capacity.

71 (i) Planetary Winds Planetary winds are caused by greater solar heating of the earth s surface near the equator ( ) than near the northern and southern poles ( 北 ). 流流北北流北流 ( 流 ) 流北北流流 ; 北流流

72 north west East south

73 (ii) Local Winds Local winds are caused by (1) differential heating of land and water 陸冷陸流陸陸冷陸流 (2) hills and mountain sides 流冷流

75 Skystream 3.7 Skystream 3.7 costs approximately $12,000 to $15,000 to purchase and install. Skystream 3.7 can pay for itself in as quickly as 5 years. Designed for very low winds, Skystream 3.7 begins producing power in an 8 mph (3.5 m/s) breeze with full output achieved at 23 mph (10.3 m/s). Skystream 3.7 can be mounted on a 35 foot (10.6 meters) tower.

76 Its full 1800 watts is achieved at 20 mph with a maximum rotor speed of 325 RPM. The sound pressure level generated by Skystream is in the range of decibels ( ) which is quieter than background noise in ahome or office.

77 The NASA/DOE 7.5 megawatt Mod-2 three turbine cluster in Goodnoe Hills, Washington in 1981

78 5 MW Rotor diameter ( ) = m

79 GE MW Series Wind Turbine Rotor Rated capacity Cut-in wind speed Cut-out wind speed Rated wind speed 3,600 kw 3.5 m/s 27 m/s 14 m/s Number of blades Rotor diameter Swept area Rotor speed (variable) m 8,495 m rpm

80 Annual average wind speed at hub height

Darrieus wind turbine "Eggbeater" turbines. They have good efficiency, but produce large torque ripple and cyclic stress on the tower, which contributes to poor reliability.

81 Darrieus wind turbine "Eggbeater" turbines. They have good efficiency, but produce large torque ripple and cyclic stress on the tower, which contributes to poor reliability. Also, they generally require some external power source, or an additional Savonius rotor, to start turning, because the starting torque is very low. 30 m Darrieus wind turbine in the Magdalen Islands

Common modern wind turbines Usually three-bladed, sometimes two-bladed or even one-bladed (and counterbalanced), and pointed into the wind by computercontrolled motors.

82 Common modern wind turbines Usually three-bladed, sometimes two-bladed or even one-bladed (and counterbalanced), and pointed into the wind by computercontrolled motors. The rugged three-bladed turbine type has been championed by Danish turbine manufacturers. Wind turbines, Denmark. A standard doorway can be seen at the base of the pylon for scale The blades are usually colored light gray to blend in with the clouds and range in length from 20 to 40 metres (60 to 120 feet) or more.

83 Offshore wind farm off Danish coast ( 丹 )

84 E-40 力 (0.6 MW 量 ) (m/s) E-40 (m/s) 量 ( ) 0 不 (2.5 3) 0 (4.9) (5-6) 42.1 (77.7) (7-8) (193.4) (9-10) (377.8) (11-12,12-13) (550.5, 590.0) 烈

85 (III) Solar Energy ( )

86 Solar Radiation

87 輻 Q = G ir (A c ) = 1389 (W/m 2 ) x (πr earth2 ) = 1.76 x (W) = 1.76 x (MW)? : 量 = 1 x 10 3 ~ 1.5x10 3 (MW)

88 ( ) (

89 ( )

90 Solar PV Generation Capacity ( 量 ) Note: Wind Power ~ 160 GW (2009)

92 (< 80 o C)

93 (> 100 o C)

97 (IV) Hydrogen Energy ( )

98 車料利料流車車料 : 量?

99 What Is A Fuel Cell? In principle, a fuel cell operates like a battery. Unlike a battery, a fuel cell does not run down or require re-charging. It will produce energy in the form of electricity and heat as long as fuel is supplied.

100 TYPES OF FUEL CELLS (1) Phosphoric Acid (2) Proton Exchange Membrane or Solid Polymer (3) Molten Carbonate (4) Solid Oxide (5) Alkaline (6) Direct Methanol Fuel Cells (7) Regenerative Fuel Cells (8) Zinc Air Fuel Cells (9) Protonic Ceramic Fuel Cell

101 (PEM) 料

102 Anode ( ): H 2 (g) > 2H + (aq) + 2e - Cathode ( ): ½O 2 (g) + 2H + (aq) + 2e - > H 2 O(l)

103

104 Hydrogen Storage A gram of hydrogen gas occupies about 11 liters (2.9 gallons) of space at atmospheric pressure, so for convenience the gas must be intensely pressurized to several hundred atmospheres and stored in a pressure vessel. In liquid form, hydrogen can only be stored under cryogenic temperatures. These options are not practical for everyday use. The solution to these difficulties is storage of hydrogen in hydride form.

105 Some alloys store hydrogen at a higher density than pure hydrogen Material H-atoms per cm 3 (x ) % of weight that is hydrogen H 2 gas, 200 bar (2850 psi) H 2 liquid, 20 K (-253 C) H 2 solid, 4.2 K (-269 C) MgH Mg 2 NiH FeTiH LaNi 5 H

106 (V) Bio-Energy ( ) 利料車 (5%) 糧 (!)

107 Global Ethanol ( ) Production Note: Nuclear Power ~ 600 million tonnes of oil equivalent Global fuel ethanol production grew 8% to 38 million tonnes of oil equivalent (1.3 million barrels daily on a volumetric basis) in 2009

108 (VI) Geothermal energy ( ) Geothermal remained the slowest growing renewable energy in Geothermal capacity grew by 3.8% (397 MW) in 2009, to reach 10.7 GW. Geothermal power generation is a well established and relatively mature form of commercial renewable energy. One of its important characteristics is a high load factor, which means that each MW of capacity ( 量 ) produces significantly more electricity during a year than a MW of wind or solar capacity.

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untitled 綠 (1) 沈 (Room 318) 類臨 ( 料 ( 金料 ) 糧不 ( ) Green Technology ( 綠 )? the application of the environmental sciences to conserve the natural environment and resources ( ), and to curb the negative impacts