(CIP) : /. :, 2003 ISBN TG2 CIP ( 2003 ) ( 1 : ) : * : : : :

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(CIP) : /. :, 2003 ISBN 7 5045 3987 2.... TG2 CIP ( 2003 ) 040909 ( 1 : 100029) : * 787 1092 16 16 399 2003 11 1 2003 11 1 : : 28. 00 : 010 64929211 : 010 64911190 : http : / / www.class.com.cn : 010 64911344

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,, ( ),, ( ),,,, ;,,, 5 ;,, ( ),, ;,,

( 1 ) ( 1 ) ( 7 ) ( 15 ) ( 30 ) ( 44 ) ( 44 ) ( 54 ) ( 67 ) ( 67 ) ( 72 ) ( 76 ) ( 76 ) ( 87 ) (100) (110) (123) (123) (135) (146) (146) (151) (160) (160) (166)

(175) (186) (199) (199) (210) (234) (234) (240) (246)

,,,,,,, 11, :, ;, 11 1. : ; :, < 3. :, ; :, 2. 4. : ; : : ; :, 1

5. : ; : 7., : ; :, 1 # 2 #,,, : a) : ; :, 6. : 8. ; : ; b ),,, ( : ) 2

9., 13. : ; :,, 1 # 2 # : ; :, 10. : 14. ; :,, : ; :, 15. : : 11. ; :, ; :,, : ; : : 12. ; 16. :,, : ; :, 3

17. : ; 21. :,, : ; :,, 18. : ; : 22.,,, : ; :, : : 19. 23. ; :, ; :, 20. : ; 24. :, : ; :, 4

,,,,,,,,, ( ),,,,, 1.,, 11,,,,,, 11 5

2., ; ; ; ; ; ;, 12, 12, 3. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10, 13,,,,, 6 13

1. (1 ) GB/ T 94421998 : ZGS - / ( ) ( ) 1) 98, 98% 2),, 12,, 3 50/ 100 5070100 3, 50 100 100 50, 100/ 50 3, 75%, 4 85% 12 6 12 20 30 40 50 70 100 140 200 270 ( mm ) 3. 35 1. 70 0. 850 0. 600 0. 425 0. 300 0. 212 0. 150 0. 106 0. 075 0. 053 3 5 10 20 30 40 50 70 100 140 200 300 3) 11, = Pn X n Pn Pn n ; X n n ( 12) (11) 7

4) 0. 02 mm,, 5), 1 500 ( 1 580),, 92 %, K2 ONa2 OCaO MgO 3%, 20/ 4040/ 7050/ 100 1 3401 420,, 85 %, 30/ 5040/ 7050/ 10070/ 140 100/ 200, 1 200,,,,, 70/ 140100/ 200 140/ 270, 700800,, 100/ 200 140/ 270,,,,,,, 0. 50 % ( ) 6) 500600,,,, (2 ),,, 1), 1 840,, 2) ( ) (ZrSiO4 ), 2 000, 2 204,,,,, 3), 2 000,,, 4) (), 2 000,,, 8

5),, 6) (),, 7), 1 5401 760,,, 2., 2 2, 3 (1 ),,,,,,,,,, P,, PNa, PCa 13 13 1, 5 2 6 3 7 4 8 p H, ( S ) ( J ) 2 (2 ),,, N (3 ),,, M, 9

, ( ),,,,,, (4 ),,,,,,,, (5 ) ( ),, (6 ),,,,,,,,,,, (7 ) ( I ), (8 ) ( ),, 3.,,, 10

( ),,,,, : 1.,,,,, : (1 ),,,, (2 ),,, (3 ),,,,,,, (4 ),,, (5 ),, 2. 0. 1 kpa, 1 min 1 cm 2 1 cm 11

,,,,,,, ; : (1 ), (2 ),, (3 ),, 3.,,,,, : (1 ), (2 ), (3 ), 4.,,,,,,, 5., 12,

1.,,, 2.,,, 3.,,,,,,, 1. : (1 ) 23, Ra 10050 m Ra 12. 5 m, 3% (2 ) (3 ) (4 ),, (5 ),, 2.,,,,,,,,,,,, 4,,,,,,,,,, 13

,, 3. (1 ),,,,,,,, ( ), 2 mm,, : 1), 2),, 3),, 4), (2 ),,,,,,,, ;, (3 ) ( ),,, ( ),,, (4 ) ( ) : 1), ( 0. 40. 6 MPa),,,,,,,,,,,,,,,, 2),, 14

,,,, 0. 4 MPa,,,,,,,, 1. 2. 14%, 5 (1 ),,,,,,, 1) 14 14 ( mm) (, % ) C Si Mn P S H T 100 3. 5 3. 9 2. 1 2. 6 0. 50. 6 < 0. 3 < 0. 15 < 30 3. 3 3. 5 2. 0 2. 4 0. 50. 8 H T 150 30 50 3. 2 3. 5 1. 9 2. 3 0. 50. 8 < 0. 2 < 0. 15 > 50 3. 2 3. 5 1. 8 2. 2 0. 60. 9 < 30 3. 2 3. 5 1. 6 2. 0 0. 70. 9 H T 200 30 50 3. 1 3. 4 1. 5 1. 8 0. 70. 9 < 0. 2 < 0. 12 > 50 3. 0 3. 3 1. 4 1. 6 0. 81. 0 < 30 3. 0 3. 3 1. 5 1. 8 0. 81. 0 H T 250 30 50 2. 9 3. 2 1. 4 1. 7 0. 91. 1 < 0. 2 < 0. 12 > 50 2. 8 3. 1 1. 3 1. 6 1. 01. 2 < 30 2. 9 3. 2 1. 4 1. 7 0. 81. 0 H T 300 30 50 2. 9 3. 2 1. 3 1. 6 0. 91. 1 < 0. 15 < 0. 12 > 50 2. 8 3. 1 1. 2 1. 5 1. 01. 2 < 30 2. 8 3. 1 1. 3 1. 6 1. 01. 3 H T 350 30 50 2. 8 3. 1 1. 2 1. 5 1. 01. 3 < 0. 10 < 0. 10 > 50 2. 7 3. 0 1. 1 1. 4 1. 11. 4 15

2),, ( ),,,,,,,,,, 1 450, 1015 min (2 ),, 6, ( ) ( ) ( ) - ( ) - ( ) ( ) 15,, 15 ( ) % C Si Mn P S 3. 53. 9 2. 0 2. 6 2. 42. 9 0. 3 0. 8 0. 08 0. 10,, (3 ),,,,,,, - - 4 1) 16 16 ( ) % C Si Mn P S 3. 6 3. 8 2. 42. 7 < 1. 0 % < 0. 08 < 0. 09 2),,,, 16

, (4 ),, 17 17 ( ) % C Si Mn P S 2. 3 2. 8 1. 3 2. 0 1. 21. 8 0. 4 0. 7 0. 30. 6 < 0. 10 < 0. 15 (5 ),, ( ), ( ) 2.,, (1 ) wc = 0. 12% 0. 62%,,,,,, 1) 18 (GB/ T 113521989) 18 ( ) % C Si Mn S P Ni Cr Cu Mo V ZG200-400 0. 20 0. 80 ZG230-450 0. 30 0. 50 ZG270-500 0. 40 ZG310-570 0. 50 ZG340-640 0. 60 0. 60 0. 90 0. 01 0. 01 0. 30 0. 35 0. 30 0. 20 0. 05 :, 0. 01 %, 0. 04 %, 1. 00 % ( ZG200-400 1. 20 % ), 2), 17

3,, 3),, (2 ), 10% ( ),,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,, 3., (1 ),, : 1),,,,,,,,,, 680700,,,, 2),, A l - Mg,,, 3),, 0. 1% 0. 5% 4),,,,,,,, Al - Cu 18

,, 5),,, Al - Mg,, 50% + 50%,, 2 3 h,, 30 min, (2 ),,,, (3 ),,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,, SiO2,,,,,,,, MgO ;, (4 ),,,,,,, ( Ar Ne),,,,, (5 ), Pb Sn,,,,, 1% 2%, 8%, ( ) : Zn 1 % 3% ; Al 1% 1. 5 % ; Cu 0. 5% 1. 0% ; Mg 10% 30% 19

BTi - BZrLa Ce, 1. (1 ) 1) 14, ( 600700),,, ;,,, B, 14 1 2 3 1/ 61/ 3 (, ),, wfesi75 = 0. 1%, 1 1. 5 mm;,, ( Si + C), 2) 200 ( 15 ),,,,,,, ;,,, (2 ),, 19 15 20

19 (FeSi75) ( mm ) ( mm ) (, % ) 5 15 13 H T 200 35 1 5. 5 24 0. 05 0. 15 60 4 4. 5 8 15 34 H T 250 35 6 12 46 0. 150. 3 60 6 7. 5 15 46 H T 300 35 8 15 69 0. 2 0. 5 60 8 12 20 46 H T 350 35 9 15 69 0. 2 0. 5 60 8 12 20 46 H T 400 35 12 24 69 0. 2 0. 5 60 8 12 (3 ) : 2022 mm, 40 45 mm, 100 mm, 16,,, (, ),, 37 mm, 3 mm,,,,,, 16 1 2 3 4, 0. 2%,,,,, 1 2 mm,,, 0. 2% 0. 4 %,,,,,,,,,,,,, 21

,, ;,, (4 ) 1),, ( ),,,,,, ;,, ;,, ;,,, 2) ( 20 30 mm) 120 mm, ( 600700),,,,,, ;,, 3), :,, 1 380, ( ),,, ;,,, ;, 4),,, 40 mm 3 12 10 ; ( ) ;,, 15 mm 5),, ;, ;, 6) 20 mm20 mm 30 mm30 mm,,,, 2 min,,, 7) (40 mm60 mm ),, 2 min (5 ) 1),, 750( ),,,, 0. 001% 0. 003% 2) 1. 52, 200 250 mm, 750, 22

, 510, ;,,,,, ;,, ( ),, ;,,,,, 3) 20 mm25 mm, 750,, 2. 110 110,, ( ),, 1., 2., 3., 1. 0. 3 % 2. 0. 3 % 3. 0. 1 %,,,,,,,,, : w Si = 0. 20 % : w Si = 0. 37 % : w Si = 0. 40 %, 3. 111 111 15 mm200 mm,, 90,, ZL104ZL101 90 15 mm30 mm, ( 25 mm6 mm ),, 23

;,,,,,,,, ZL102,,, b 112 112,,,,,,,,,, 4. 550, ; 20 30 s,,,, 113, 113 ZC usn5 Pb5Zn5 ZCuSn10P1 ZCu Al10 Fe3 ZC uzn16si4 ZCuZ n25al6 Fe3Mn3,,,,,,,, 24

ZC usn5 Pb5Zn5 ZCuSn10P1 ZCu Al10 Fe3 ZC uzn16si4 ZCuZ n25al6 Fe3Mn3 3060 3060 70100 7090 4060,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,, 5. 114 114 1. 2. 1., 2. 1., 2., 1., 2. 1., 57 min 2. 1. 2. 3. 1. 1. 2. 2. Al 2 O 3 > 0. 016 %, 3., Al 2 O 3 25

1., 2., 1. 2. 1. 2., 1. 2. 6. 115 115,, 1.,, Mg 2.,, 3., Al - Cu 4., ZnCl 2 C 2 Cl 6 1., (1 ),,,,,, (2 ),,,,, (3 ),,,, (4 ),,,,,, (5 ), ( 60 mm ),,, 26

, (6 ),,,,,, 2. 116 116 : 1 250 1 500 30-6 B - 1 : 5,, : 2. 5, SW - LB - 3 U : 1 000 1 600 : 1 : < 0. 4 s SW,, QRW WR e - 1 : 1 700 : < 2 % : < 20 s XCZ101,,, : 1 300 1 800 CWY - 3 : 1,,, : < 15 s 1. 117, 118 117 ( ) % 40 30 6070 911 10 20 35 35 911 40 20 6080 911 40 30 60 70 1215 40 30 60 70 911 100 56 30 20 6070 10 911 20 10 80 90 911 10 90 27

118 1., 2., 1.,,, ( 12 V 36 V ) 2.,, ( ),, 1/ 2 1., 2., ( < 2 mm ),, ;,,,, 3.,,, 4. ( ),,, ( 5 10 ) 5., 6.,, 7., 2. (1 ),,, 1) ( ), 119 120 119 08 ( mm ) > 1. 3 ( g/ cm 3 ) 100( 810 ) 20/ 40 ( ) > 1. 3 ( g/ cm 3 ) 100( 10 12 ) 120 24 ( mm ) 08 ( mm ) 100( 912) 08 ( mm ) 015 ( mm ) 80 100 ( ) 100( 912) 28 2),

,,,, (2 ),,,, 2530,, 1) 50% 50 % 2),,,, ( 10mm ) 3. 121 121 1,, 2,,, 3,, 4,,, 5, 6 7,, 4., ( 17 ) ( 122 ) 17 a) b) 1 t c) 1 t 1 2 3 4 5 29

122 % 10 20 35 35 40 60 10 20 10 20 6050 20 45 35 20 80 10 90 10 90 1. (1 ),,,,,,,,,, 4, 123 123,,,,,,,,,,, 30

(2 ),,, 4 : 1) 2),, 3), 4) (3 ), (4 ),,,,,,, : 1) 2),,, 3),, 4), (5 ),,, 2. (1 ),, (2 ), (3 ),, ( ), (4 ),,,, (5 ),, 31

,,,,,, 1.,, ( 18 ) ( 19 ) ( 110 ) ( 111 ) ( 112 ) ( 113 ), ( 114 ) ( 115 ), ( 116 ) ( 117 ),, 2. ; ;,, ;, 18 19 110 111 112 32

113 114 115 116 117 a) b ) c), ( ) 33

1. (1 ), : 1),,,, 2), 22. 5 h, 40%, 40%, 20%,, 3),,,,,,, :,, 1530 min,,, 30 min,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,, 4),,,,,, 34

(2 ), 3 ( ) : 1),,,,,, 2), ( 1% 1. 5 % ),,, 3,, 3),,,, 4),,, 5),,, 6),,,,,, (3 ), 50 Hz ( ) ( 10 k H z 100 kh z) ( 100 kh z) 3,, 50 H z,,, : 1), 20% 30 %,,,, 15% 30%, 2),,,,, 3),,,,,, 35

4),, 5),,, ;,,, 2.,, ( )() ( ) (1 ),,, 1),,,,,,,,,,,,,, 2),, ( ), 3),,,,,,,, 4),,,, ;,,, 5),,, 36 (2 )

1),,,,,,,,,,, 18, 23,,, 2),,,, 3040 m, 1220 m,,, 3),,,,,,,,, 3. (1 ), 1), ( 0. 7 MPa ) ( 0. 7 MPa ) 2) Z145A,,,,,,, 3) 60, 0. 7 2. 5 MPa,, :,,,, 70,,, 1970 KW BMD, 40, 10, 37

600 mm400 mm 1 690 mm900 mm, 60120 / h 4),,,, ( Gas Impact) (Air Impact), 1 m 2, > 200 mm GF 3. 29 m 2 2. 0 m 2 ; BMD 3. 2 m 2, :, ;, ;,,, ; ;, 80% ( 0. 10. 3 s ),,, 1979, ( Airflow Squeeze Moulding P rocess), : (p/ t), (t) 0. 3 s, 0. 01 s ;,,,,, A PS ()A PK ( ) FB 3 10, H SP2H SP3 3, 1 000 mm800 mm 1 300 mm 1 000 mm H WS HSP1 650 mm 500 mm800 mm 650 mm 5), 6) : ( DISA ), 2110201321302070 4 10 500 mm 400 mm 950 mm800 mm; 100 mm/ 315 mm 250 mm/ 635 mm; 200 / h 360 / h, DISA : ; ; ;,, ;, 1 520 mm1 220 mm450 mm 500 mm 400 mm 600 mm 480 mm 1993 XZZ416, 600 mm480 mm( 120330 ) mm, > 240 / h ( 200 mm ),,,,,, 2013MK4 7) ( Hunter ),, 38

, HMP, P LC,,,, 20, 406 mm 279 mm 1 270 mm 1 067 mm H, : 120 220 / h ; ;, ;,,,, 8) (Dynamic - Impulse) 80 BMD :,,, (5 m/ s ), :,,, (2 ),, 4. (1 ) ( 118 ), : 1) () ( 160190 g ) ( ),,,, 3,,,, 39

2) (),,,, 3,,,,, 3), 3 mm,, (2 ) S TZ ( 119 ), : 118 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 119 STZ 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 40 1),,, 0, 0, K50, K < 50 2), 3)

,, 4) (),,, (3 ) SWY ( 120 ) : 1) L - T SA32 ( ) 2) 3) SAC 4) 0 5),,, 6), 120 SWY 1 2 3 1. 4 5,,,,,,,, (1 ), (2 ),, (3 ),, (4 ),,, 41

,, (5 ),,, (6 ),,, (7 ),,, (8 ), (9 ), ( ) (10),, ( ) 2.,,,,,,, (1 ), 500 h : 42 1), 2) 3) ; ; 4) 5),,,

(2 ), ( ) : 1),, 2), 3),, 4), 5),,, 43

, 1. ( 21),,, ;, ;, ;, ; ;,,,, ;, ;,,, 21,,,,,,,,,,,,, 44

,,, ( 0. 15 0. 4 M Pa) ( 0. 4 0. 7 MPa ) ( > 0. 7 M Pa) 3 ;, ( ), ( ),,,,,,,,,,,,,,,, ;,,, ( ),,,,,,,,, 1. 5 m 2, ( ),, 45

2. 22,,,,,,,,,,, CAD/ CAM, 22,,,,,,,,,,,,, ;, ;,,,,, :, ;,,, ( ),,,,, 50 mm,,, 25 mm, 46

( ),,,,, ;, ;,, ( ) 170,,,,, ;,,,,,,,, > 9 kg, > 50 mm 1.,, (1 ),,, ) (2 ), ( ) (,,,,, (3 ),,, (4 ),, (5 ),,, (6 ) 47

, ( ),,, (7 ),,, (8 ), (9 ),,, 2., (1 ),, 21 1),, 2),, 3),,,,, 4),,, 21 a ) b ) c) 1 2 3, ( 21a ) ) 5),, 6) 180( 21b ), ( 7), ( 21c ), 8),,,,, (2 ),,,,,,,, ; 48

,, ( ) 1),,,,,, ( 510 mm),,,,,,, 2),,,,,,,,,,,, 180,,,,,,, (3 ),,, :,,,,,,,, : 1),,,,,, 2),,,, 3),, 3.,,,,,,,, 49

, ;, ; ;, ;,, ( ), () 300400, () 300350 : 4060 mm, 6090 mm,, 0. 2% 0. 25% ( ),,, 24 h 4.,,,, (1 ) 1),, 2) 3) 4) (2 ) 1),,, 2),,, 3) 4), 5),,,,,, 1., ; ;,,, 50

, : (1 ),,,,,, (2 ),, (3 ),,,,,,,, (4 ) (5 ),,,,, 2., ( g/ cm 3 ) : 0. 61. 0 g/ cm 3 ; 1. 2 1. 3 g/ cm 3 ; 1. 551. 7 g/ cm 3 ; 1. 61. 8 g/ cm 3,,,,,,,,, 6080, 90,,,,,,, ;,,,,,, 3. (1 ),,,,, ( 22 ), 1) 150 mm,,,,,, 51

,,,,, 2),,,,, ;,, 0. 71. 5 M Pa 3),,,,,,, (2 ),, 23 22 a) b ) 1 2 3 4 5 6 23 a) b ),,,,,,,,,,, 52 (3 )

,, 1 s,,,,,, (4 ), (5 ) 4., :,,,,,, (1 ), 1), 4, 4,, 24, 4,, 2),,, 25 24 a) b ) 1 2 3 4 25 a ) b ) 1 2 3 4 5 53

,,,,,,,,,, 26 (2 ), 180,,,, 26 a) b ) 1 2 3 4, 27 28,,,,,, 27 a) b ) 1 2 3 4 28 1 2 3 4, ( ) 4, 29 4, 4 54

1., :, ;,, ; ;, 29 1 2 (1 ) 3 4 210,,,,,,, 211 212 (2 ), 213,,,,,,,, 210 211 212 213 214, 215,, 217 2. 216 214 215 216 217 55

, (1 ),,, (2 ) 218 1) a 150, :,,,, 2) b,,, 3) c,,, 4) d,,,,,, (3 ),,,, 219,,,,,,, 3. (1 ),,,,, (2 ) 220 :,,, :, 218 219 220 a) b ) a ) b ) c) c) d) 56

(3 ),,,,,,,, (4 ), : 1), 221,,,,,,, 2), ( 222 ) ( 223 ),,,,,,,,,,,, 221 1 2 3 222 a) b) 3), 224,,,,,,,,, 4),,,, 57

223 224 1 2 3 4 4., (1 ),, (2 ) 225,, ;,, ;,, ;,,,,, 225 a) b ) c) d) e) f) g ) (3 ),,,,,,,,, : 1), l5 h, 75 mm, 226,,, 2),,, 227, 58

226 1 2 3 4 227 a) b ) c) 1 2 3 1.,,,,,,, : (1 ) (2 ), (3 ), (4 ), 2.,, : (1 ), (2 ), (3 ) (4 ), 3. 228,, 229,,,,,,,,,, ( ), 59

228 a) b) 1 2 3 4 5 229,,,,,,, 1. : (1 ),,, (2 ),, (3 ),, 60

(4 ),, 2. (1 ),,,, ( ),,, 230abc,, 230de,, 230abc,, (2 ) 230 a) b ) c) d ) e),,,,,,, ;,,,,,,,,, 231a,,, 23 1 bc;,,, 231 d,, 61

231 a) b ) c) d ) 3. (1 ) 1), 2), 3),, 4), ; 0. 50. 7 0. 8, 5), ;,,, (2 ) 1),,, 2), 34 h,,, 3) ; 4),,, 5), 30 mm 6),,,,,, 62 1.,,

: (1 ) (2 ) : 1),,,,, 2),,,, 3),, 600, 300 mm,, 4), (3 ) 1),,,, 2), 3),, 4),,, (4 ),, (5 ), (6 ) 1),,, 2) 63

3) (7 ),, ;, ;,,,, ;,,,,,,,,,,,,, (8 ),,,,,,,,,,,,,,, 2. (1 ) ;,, : ;,, 23, 23 ( ) < 20 mm 2030 mm > 30 mm ( ) < 20 mm 2030 mm > 30 mm 1 3401 360 1 3201 340 1 280 1 320 1 1801 200 1 1501 180 1 100 1 150 1 3201 340 1 3001 320 1 280 1 300 1 1401 180 1 1001 140 1 060 1 100 1 3601 380 1 3401 360 1 300 1 340 720780 700740 650 700 1 5801 620 1 5501 580 1 540 1 560 720750 700720 680 700 780820 740780 700 720 64

,,,, (2 ), kg/ s,,,,, ; (3 ), 3.,, (1 ), 1), 2),, 3),,, (2 ) 1),,,,,,,,, 2), ( ),,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,, 3),, 4),, 65

,, ;,, 4.,,, (1 ), ( ),,,, 1 340 ; 10 mm, 1 3401 360 ;, 1 380;, 1 400 (2 ),, ; 1), ( 232a ), H T150;,, ( 232b ), H T200; ( 232c ), H T250; ( 232d ), H T300 2),, :,, ;,,, 233a,, :,,,, ;,, 23 m, 233b 232 233 a) b ) c) d ) a) b ) 66

,,,,,,,, GB/ T 56111998 8 : 1. ( ) ( ) ( ) 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8.,, 67

,,,, 1. (1 ), 31a, : 31 a) b ) c) 1) 2), 3),, 4), 5),, 6),,,, (2 ),,, 31b 31c : 1), 2),, 3),, 4),, 5) 6), 2. (1 ),,, 32 68

,,, : 1),, 2),,,, 32 3), 4),, 5), (2 ), ( 33 ),, : 1),, 2),, 3) 4),,,, 5) (3 ), ( 34 ), : 33 34 1),,, 2),, 3), 4),, 5), 69

6),,, 7),, 3.,,, 35,,, : 35 a) b) c) d ) (1 ),,,,, (2 ),,,,, (3 ),,,, (4 ),,, (5 ),, (6 ), 4. ( ), 36a,,,, 36b,, 70 36 a) b)

,,, ;,, : (1 ), (2 ),, (3 ),,, (4 ),,, (5 ),, (6 ), (7 ),, (8 ),, (9 ),,,,, (10),,,,,, 5. ( ),,,, 37 : (1 ) ;, ; (2 ) ;, ;, (3 ), (4 ),, (5 ),, 6., 38 : (1 ) (2 ) 71

(3 ), (4 ),,, (5 ),, (6 ),,,, 7.,, 39, 37 ( ) 38 39 a) ( ) b) : (1 ), (2 ),,,, (3 ), (4 ),, (5 ) (6 ),, (7 ),,, ;, - 72

,,, 1.,, 2. Ra Rz ( Ra Rz m), GB/ T 6060. 11997, 3. GB/ T 113511989,, 4.,, 5. ( ),, 6., ( ) 7.,,,,, 8.,,, ( ) ;, 73

9.,,,,,,, 1., 100% (1 ) 1), 2) 3) 4),, 5) 6), 7) (2 ),, 3,, 2. ( GB/ T 150561994), GB/ T 6060. 11997 3. 16 MT1 M T16, : (1 ),, (2 ), ;,, 74 (3 ), 12

(4 ),, 2 4. GB/ T 64141999 16, CT1CT16,, 75

,, 1.,,, 2.,,,,,,,,,,,, 3.,,, 4.,,,, 76

,,,, 1., ( ),,,,,,,, : (1 ), 41a,,,, ( 41b ),, ( 41c ) 41 a ) b ) c) (2 ),,, (3 ) 42 (4 ),,,, 43,, 3 (5 ),, (6 ),,,,, 77

42 43 a) b) a) b ) (7 ),,,, 2.,, ( ), (),,, : (1 ),,,,,,,,, 44, ; 45, 44 45 (2 ),,,,, 46 78 (3 )

,,,,, 47,,,, 46 47 (4 ),, (5 ),,, (6 ),, (7 ),,,, 48 (8 ),,, 48 a) b), ( 49 ) 49 a) b ) 79

(9 ) (10) 410,, 4 11,, 410 1 2 3 4 411 1 2 3 4 5 6,,,,, 3., (1 ), : 1),,, 412, 4, 2),,,, 413 412 413 3),, 414,,,, 415, 1 # 2 #, 80

414 415 4),, 5),,,, 6),,, (2 ) ( ), 416, 416 a) b) 1 2 3 4 1) 41,,,,, 10 5,,, 81

41 mm h D A + B 2 30 31 60 61 100 101150151 300301500 501700 701 1 000 1 0012 000 > 2 000 L 30 15 15 20 31 50 2025 20 25 2025 51 100 2530 25 30 2530 2025 20 25 3040 4060 101 150 3035 30 35 3035 2530 25 30 4060 4060 5070 5070 151 300 3545 35 45 3545 3040 30 40 4060 5070 5070 6080 80 100 301 500 45 65 4565 3555 35 55 4060 5070 5070 80100 80 100 501 700 60 80 6080 4565 45 65 5070 6080 6080 80100 80 100 7011 000 7090 70 90 6080 6080 80100 80100 1 001 2 000 100 120100120 80100 80100 80100 100150 > 2 000 80120 80120 100150 h h 1 h 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50 55 60 65 70 80 90 100 150 200 h 1 15 15 15 20 20 25 25 30 30 35 35 40 45 50 55 65 80 S D A + B 2 50 51 101 151 100 150 200 201 300 301 400 401 500 501 700 701 1 0011 500 1 000 1 500 2 000 > 2 000 0. 5 0. 5 1. 0 1. 0 1. 5 1. 5 2. 5 2. 0 2. 5 2. 5 3. 0 3. 0 0. 5 1. 0 1. 5 1. 5 2. 0 2. 5 3. 0 3. 5 4. 0 5. 0 6. 0 7. 0 2), 42,,,,,, 5 10, (> ),, ;,, 417 82

42 mm l D A + B 2 L 25 26 51101 151 201 50 100 150 200 300 301 400 401 500 501 700 701 1 001 1 501 > 2 000 1 000 1 500 2 000 100 20 25 30 35 35 40 45 40 50 50 70 60 80 101 200 2530 35 45 35 40 45 55 50 70 60 80 70 90 80 100 201 400 35 40 50 45 60 70 60 80 70 90 80 100 80 100 401 600 40 50 60 60 70 80 70 90 80 100 90 110 100 120 120 140 130 150 601 800 60 70 80 80 90 100 90 110 100 120 110 130 120 140 130 150 150 170 8011 000 80 100 100 100 120 120 110 130 120 140 130 150 150 170 160 180 180 200 1 001 1 500 90 110 100 110 120 130 120 140 130 150 140 160 160 180 180 200 200 220 220 260 1 501 2 000 110 120 130 140 140 160 150 170 160 180 180 200 200 220 220 240 240 300 2 001 2 500 130 150 150 170 160 180 180 200 200 220 220 240 240 260 260 300 340 360 > 2 500 180 200 200 220 220 240 240 260 260 280 280 320 320 360 360 420 S 1 S 2 S 3 D A + B 2 50 51 101 151 100 150 200 201 300 301 400 401 500 501 700 701 1 0011 500 1 000 1 500 2 000 > 2 000 S 1 0. 5 1. 0 1. 0 1. 0 1. 5 1. 5 2. 0 2. 0 2. 5 2. 5 3. 0 3. 0 S 2 1. 0 1. 5 1. 5 1. 5 2. 0 2. 0 3. 0 3. 0 4. 0 4. 0 4. 5 4. 5 S 3 1. 5 2. 0 2. 0 2. 0 3. 0 3. 0 4. 0 4. 0 5. 0 5. 0 6. 0 6. 0 S 1 1. 0 1. 5 1. 5 1. 5 2. 0 2. 0 2. 0 2. 5 3. 0 3. 0 4. 0 5. 0 S 2 1. 5 2. 0 2. 0 3. 0 3. 0 4. 0 4. 0 4. 5 5. 0 6. 0 8. 0 10. 0 S 3 2. 0 3. 0 3. 0 4. 0 4. 0 6. 0 6. 0 8. 0 8. 0 9. 0 10. 0 12. 0 83

417 a) b ) 1., kg/ dm 3 g/ mm 3 m V, : = m V (41),,,, 43 43 kg/ dm 3 7. 87. 85 7. 5 8. 1 7. 0 7. 3 7. 1 7. 3 7. 1 7. 4 7. 37. 6 6. 76. 8 1. 81. 9 2. 52. 6 2. 82. 9 2. 8 2. 9 2. 6 2. 7 8. 5 8. 8 8. 9 9. 7 8. 68. 9 7. 37. 6 7. 78. 0 8. 28. 4 2. 44 44 V = abh V = 1 2 ( a + b) L h V = 3 h ( R2 + r 2 + Rr) V = 4. 189 r 3 = 0. 524 d 3 84

V =R 2 h 1 + h 2 2 V = 4 h ( D2 - d 2 ) =h ( R 2 - r 2 ) V = h 6 ( 2 ab + ab 1 + a 1 b+ 2 a 1 b 1 ) V = 6 h ( 3 a2 + h 2 ) = 3 h2 ( 3 R - h) V = 2 2 Rr 2 V = h 15 (2 D2 + D d + 3 4 d2 ) = 1 4 2 D d 2 = 2. 3674 D d 2 3. : (1 ),,, (2 ) mm, cm, dm 43 (3 ) 44 (4 ) 85

(5 ) 41,,, 5% 15% 1 11, : 1) 11 418 3 :,, 2) dm, kg/ dm 3 3) 418 a ) b) c) 44 : V 1 = 4 h( D2 - d 2 ) = 3. 14 4 0. 9 (2 2-1 2 ) = 2. 12 ( dm 3 ) 44 : V2 = 1 2 ( a + b) Lh - 1 2 ( 4 D2 h) = 1 2 (2 + 3) 0. 42-1 2 44 : V3 4) 5) 3. 14 4 22 0. 4 = 1. 37(dm 3 ) = abh - a b h= 4 1. 5 0. 55-2 1. 5 0. 1 = 3 ( dm 3 ) V = V1 + V2 + V3 = 2. 12 + 1. 37 + 3 = 6. 49 ( dm 3 ) 43, = 7. 2 kg/ dm 3, 41 : : m = V= 6. 497. 2 = 46. 7 ( kg), m1, : 86 m= m + m1 + ( m + m1 ) (5 % 15 % )

4.,,, : 2 2. 8 kg/ dm 3 3. 6 kg,? : K = 7. 2 2. 8 = 2. 6 : m = 2. 63. 6 = 9. 4 ( kg), 7. 2 kg/ dm 3, 3, 6 kg 3 kg, 53. 1 kg,? : K = 53. 1 3 : m = 17. 76 kg = 106. 2 ( kg) = 17. 7 3 45 45 kg/ dm 3 0. 44 0. 38 0. 59 0. 69,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,, 87

( ) 1. (1 ),,, (2 ), (3 ),,,,, (4 ),,,,,, (5 ),,, (6 ), ( ) (7 ), 2. 1 3201 400,,,,, 5%50%, 50% 95%,,,,,, 1% 46 3. 1 4001 500, 1 500,,,,,,, 1% 47 88

46 ( ) ( % ) ( % ) ( % ) ( % ) ( % ) ( % ) ( M Pa) 21 15 3040 60 70 5 7 35 0. 2 5 56 0. 08 30 21 3545 55 65 7 10 34 0. 15 45 6 0. 08 30 21 1520 80 85 7 9 23 34 5 0. 08 60 42 2030 70 80 45 0. 2 78 0. 09 42 21 50 50 5 8 4 89 0. 08 100 13 15 5 4 78 0. 2 0. 3 47 ( ) ( % ) ( % ) ( % ) ( % ) ( % ) ( % ) ( MPa) 15 21 50 50 3 0. 4 45 0. 05 10 15 100 910 0. 3 1 67 > 0. 05 30 60 100 4 89 0. 4 78 > 0. 06 30 60 100 6 6 78 0. 06 9 4 0. 2 2 78 0. 06 42 60 100 9 2 68 > 0. 05,,,, ; ; 4. 1 100,, 50% 50%,,, 48 5. (1 ),, (2 ) 89

48 ( ) ( % ) ( % ) ( % ) ( % ) ( % ) ( % ) ( M Pa) 15 20 10 70 80 3 5 > 0. 04 15 30 20 50 1 5 > 0. 04 10 30 30 40 1 5 6 > 0. 04 15 30 70 2 7 > 0. 04 15 100 0. 8 1 2 0. 7 2 > 0. 01,,,, 1 2 min (3 ), 58 min (4 ),,, (5 ),, (6 ),, 2 h (7 ) (8 ),, ( ),, ;,, 1., 6 10 mm,, 90

,, ;,,,,,,,, (1 ) 4% 6 %, 1% 3%, 0. 5 % 1% 50 % 60 %, 40 % 50 %, 4% 5 %, 2% 3 %, 0. 5% 1. 5 % 49 49 ( ) ( % ) ( 15 % 20 % ) ( % ) ( % ) ( % ) ( % ) ( % ) ( % ) ( MPa) ( MPa) 15 100 8 9 0. 7 45 45 > 0. 25 > 1. 5 21 100 7 0. 71 3 1 4. 55. 5 > 0. 17 > 1. 0 30 100 7 8 4. 55. 5 > 0. 05 > 1. 0 21 50 50 4 6 12 46 > 0. 25 21 50 50 5 6 12 1 2 46 > 0. 25 30 60 40 5 7 23 1 1. 5 46 > 0. 25 (2 ),, 12 min,, 2 3 min, 1 min, 12 min, 35 min,,, 2. 180200,,, ; 91

,,, 0. 25%, (1 ), 410 410 ( ) ( % ) M ( 15 % ( g/ cm 3 20 % ) ) ( % ) ( % ) ( M Pa) ( MPa) 100 68 34 4. 55 2. 35 0. 5 1 0. 5 1 0. 012 > 0. 6 2 3 0. 03 1. 4 > 1. 0 190 1 h 1. 52 1. 3 > 2. 2 220230 12 min 100 67 1. 55 1. 5 120 (2 ),, 3.,,, (1 ), 1),,,,,,, 411 411 ( ) ( % ) ( % ) ( 10 % ) ( % ) ( MPa) 24 h 6 7 57 1 2 > 0. 4 100 6 7 24 0. 51. 5 > 1 5 6 12 0. 5 1 5 6 12 0. 5 1 1 2 100 3. 5 3 0. 21 > 2. 5 CSC4 0. 18 > 2. 5 92

2),, 2 3 min,, 12 min,, (2 ),,,, 1) 411 2),,, (1 min) 12 min,,,,,,, 1521 1., (1 ),,,,, 412 412 ( ) ( % ) ( ) ( % ) ( ) ( % ) ( MPa) 100 6 16. 5 1 1 0. 35 > 4. 2 100 6 16. 5 1 1 > 4. 2 100 5 16. 7 1 1 3. 75 > 4. 2 100 3 16. 7 1 1 3. 75 > 2. 6 100 6. 5 15 1 1 > 2. 5 (2 ),,, 23 min 140160, 4050 s, 5070, 5060 s,, 1020 s,,, 35, 93

20, 15 2., () 180250, 1 min (1 ) 21,,,, ; ; = 133,,,, = 11 413 413 ( ) ( % ) ( % ) ( % ) ( % ) ( M Pa) 100 2. 22. 4 5 0. 24 0. 26 0. 150. 3 > 2. 5 100 2. 83 68 > 2. 5 100 Z NR1 2. 42. 9, = 133 1820 0. 14 0. 18 > 2. 1 100 F03 2. 63 1416 K H 550 0. 5 > 2 100 DR2 2. 42. 6, = 133 1820 0. 14 0. 18 > 2. 5 (2 ), 3545 s, 4050 s, 8090 s, 2. 53 min, 4 h 3. ( ),,,,,, 94 (1 ) ( ),

,,, 1),,, 64,, 1. 4% 1. 6%, 1. 2% 1. 3%, ( ) 1% 1. 1 %, 2), 1015 s, 70 80 s, 7080 s,,, ( ) 1. 5%, 0. 7 MPa, 12 h, 23 h (2 ), ( ), 1), 1% 1. 5%, 50% 25% 50%, 0. 25% 0. 3 %, 2) ( ), 90 110 s, 78 h 4.,,,,, (1 ), 21 30,,,, ( ) 1% 2% ( = 73 ), 30% 40% (,, )() ( ) 0. 1% 0. 3%, 1. 5% 4%, 0. 2 % 0. 4% (2 ) 90120 s,,,,, 6090 s, 6090 s, 2025, 95

, 2030,, 1.,,, ;, 2.,,,,,, 3.,,, 4.,,,,, 5.,, 6.,,, 7.,,,,,,,, 96 1.

(1 ) ( ),, 50 g0. 5 g,, 1015 min,, (2 ), 6, 120 mm ( 140 mm ),, ( 118 ) 3, ( 120 mm),,, 2.,, 119 : (1 ) 118 155165 g,,, 50 mm, 3 50 mm50 mm, 3 (2 ),, 10 min,, 98 mm, (3 ),,,,,,,, 0. 5 mm 1. 5 mm,, 0. 5 mm,, 1. 5 mm (4 ) 3,, 3 3 10%,,,,,, 3., 4, 120 : 97

(1 ), 180 5, 1 h,, (2 ),,,, (3 ),, (4 ) 3, 10 %, 4. ( ) 170 g,,, 5. (),, 3, 10 %, 6. ( ),,,,, 3, 10%, 1. (1 ),, : ; ; ; (2 ), 98

(3 ) ( CMC ) ( P VB) (4 ),, (5 ) 2. ZBJ 3100890, ( S ) ( Y) ; ( G ) ( F ) ; ( SM ) ( H ) ( JS ) ( GL ) (Z) ( GY) ( M) ( MG) ( Q) 9 3., (1 ), (2 ), (3 ),, (4 ),,,,,,,, (5 ) ( 36 ),,, 4. 414 5. (1 ),,,, 99

414 ( ) 70, 30, 10, 42 (120 # ), 42, 8 16 85, 8 16 100, 23, 48 h, 100, 23, 3 4,, 100, 2, 2 65, 5, 2, 28 8 h 100, 2, 2 20 h 86, 9, 5 (2 ),,,,,,, 1. (1 ),,, 3 : 1),, 419a - 2),, 419b - 3),, 3, (2 ) 419c,, 100

419 a) b) c),,,,,,,,, 2. ( 1 ),,,,,,, ( ),,,,,,,, 420,, ( ) 421 :, ;, 420 421 101

(2 ),,, 1. (1 ) ( ),, 1),,, ;,,, ;,, 2) ( FeSi75 ), 0. 2% 0. 4 % ;, 0. 3% 0. 5% (13 mm ),,, 3),, ( ), wsi = 70 % 80 % ( wc a = 1 % 2%, wal < 0. 5% ), 1520 minsrcebacaaltizr ( ) 4),,,,, ( ),,, (2 ) 1) ( Cu-Mg Ni- Mg ) 2),,,,,, 102

ws = 0. 03 % 0. 05 %, ( wre = 2% 5%, wm g = 6 % 8 % ) 1. 2% 1. 8 %,,,,, 80100, 1 450 1 350,, 3),,, 4),, ws i = 75%,,, 0. 5% 1. 0%,, 0. 8 % 1. 6%,,, 0. 53 mm 1030 mm,,,, (3 ) 1),,,, 1 400,,,,,, 2),,, FeSi75, S rsi,,, ( 5 10 mm),, ( 0. 52 mm) 0. 4% 0. 6%,,,, ws i = 1. 8 % 2. 2%, (4 ),,, 103

, Al-T i Al-B,,, 0. 015%, 0. 001 5%,, 2. () (1 ) ( ), 1), 2),,, 3),,, ( ) (2 ) 3080 mm,,,,, (3 ),, :,, ( ):,,, 3. (1 ) 1) TiBZr, Al- TiAl-BAl-ZrAl- Ti-B K2 TiF6 KBF4 K2 Zr F6 ZrCl4 BCl4 Al Ti5AlB1Al Ti5B1AlZr5,,,, 2),, wp = 0. 05 % 0. 1 %, wp = 0. 005% 0. 015 % 800850,,,, 104

,, 3),, NaF 1 # 2 # 3 # 415 415, 300 400, 3 5 h, 0. 5 1 mm,, 300 400,, 10 12 min,, 100150 mm 3 5 min,,, NaF 150 180 2 h 10 min,, : 30 min ;, ; 23 h (2 ) Mg-Al :,, Mgx Aly Fez, ;, Al4 C3 Mg-Zn, K2 ZrF6 ZrCl4 Mg-Zr Mg-Zn-Zr,,, 416 416 (, % ) ( ) ( min ) 0. 30. 4 710740 812 0. 50. 6 760780 25 0. 30. 4 740760 812, ( ),,,, 10 mm, 0. 5 kg, 3 h 150200 150300 3 h,, :,, 23 min, 1. (1 ) 417 105

417 Z M1 Z M2 Z M3 Z M5 150,, RJ5 RJ6 ( 1 % 2 % ) ( ZM1 RJ4 ) 150,, RJ1 R J2,, 720 740 (, ),, 780 810, ( ZM2 ZM3 ),, 25 min,, 700 720, Al-Mn ( Al- Mg-Mn ) Al-Be ( Al-Mg-Be ),,, 760,, 416 : 750 760( ZM2 760 780) : 410 min : ZM1 RJ4, ZM2ZM3 RJ5, ZM3 RJ6, 1. 5 % 2. 5 % ( ) : 710740 : 5 8 min : RJ2, 1. 5 % 2 % ( ) 1., 2. 780 820, 15 min 3. ( ) 4., ZM2Z M3 30 35 min, 1., R J2 2. 760780, 10 20 min 3. ( ) 4. : Z M5,,, Z M1, w (Mg Zr) = 1 % 2 %,, ; ZM2ZM3,, 1 h, 8 h (2 ) 418 418 1., 2.,, 3. 1 180 1 200, w L i = 0. 03 % 1. 3 % ( = 1 1 1 ), 3 8 6 1 2., 1 150 1 200,, 1/ 2 3.,, 1 200 4. 1 2001 250,,, 106

1.,, 555 2. 1 200,, 3.,,,, 4., w C u- P = 0. 15 % 0. 2 % 1.,,,, w C u = 8 13 3 2 10 % 2.,,, 3.,, 10 % 4. 1 200,, 5 10 min 10 1 1., 1 100 1/ 5,,, 1 1001 150,, 2.,, 1.,, 1 150, w P = 0. 05 % 0. 07 %, 2. Al- Fe,, Al- Fe 3., 1 1601 250,,, 10 3 1. w Cu = 90 % 95 %, 2. 2/ 3,,, 1 200 3. 5 % 10 % ( ),, 1., 2. 750780, 300,,,, 1 100, 3., 1 200,, 5 min 4. 1 h 16 4 1. 1015 mm,, 2.,,, 3.,, 107

(3 ) 419 419 1., 2., 1. 5 % 2 % CuP10 3. 4., 90 % 5. 650, 6., C 2 Cl 6 ( 0. 2 % 0. 3 % ) Z nc l 2 ( 0. 1 % 0. 15 % ), 5 10 min 7.,,, : Al Cu, : 1., 90 %, Al Cu 2. 650, 3. w (C2 Cl 6 ) = 0. 2 % 0. 3 % w ( Zn Cl2 ) = 0. 1 % 0. 15 % ( ) 4., 5., : ZZnAl27Cu2Mg C 2 Cl 6 2. (1 ) 420 420 (, % ) NaCl KCl Na 3 Al F 6 CaF 2 NaF MgCl 2 1 50 50 2 47 47 6 3 20 50 Ca Cl 2 30 4 75 Ca Cl 2 25 5 45 45 10 6 75 ZnCl 2 25 7 45 15 40 8 3638 15 20 4447 Al-Mg 9 39 50 6. 6 4. 4 10 50 35 15 11 40 50 10 12 60 20 20 13 6070 610 5 10 BaCl 2 1425 : 200300 3 5 h,, 150 2 h 108

(2 ) 421 421 (, % ),, 100 ;, ; 25 mm, 10 30 mm 1 100, 4 5 mm 50, 50, 5 % 10 % C af 2 37, 63,, 4 5 mm 9095, 510, 4 5 mm 100 4 2, SnO 2, 75, 25 591,, 100, 50, 50 SnO 2, SiO 2 50, ( ), 50 ; 60, 40 34, 33, 33; 50, 50,, :,,, (3 ) 422 422 ( % ) 100, 800 750, 750 RJ1 93, Ba Cl 2 7 800,,, RJ2 1. 88, BaCl 2 7, CaF 2 5 2. RJ1 95, CaF 2 5 RJ1 CaF 2, 10 # 20 # ZM5 Z M10 RJ3 7. 5 75, CaF 2 17. 5, MgO, 20 # 40 #, ZM5 ZM10 1. 76, BaCl 2 15, CaF 2 9 RJ4 2. RJ1 82, BaCl 2 9, CaF 2 9 1. 56, BaCl 2 30, CaF 2 14 RJ5 2. RJ1 60, BaCl 2 26, CaF 2 14 RJ6 BaCl 2 15, KCl55, CaF 2 2, CaCl 2 28 C af 2,, 750 800,,,, CaF 2,, 20 # 40 # Z M1 Z M1 Z M2 Z M3 Z M4 Z M6 Z M3ZM4ZM6 109

3. (1 ) 423 423 (, % ) ( mm ) ( ) ( ) AlSi12 ( A ) Si 10. 513. 5 1015 750850 680760 Al Cu50 ( A ) Cu 4555 100 100 850950 700750 AlMn10 ( A ) Mn 911 1015 9001 000 850900 AlT i5 ( A) Ti 46, 5 10 1 0001 200 900950 Al Ti4B ( A ) B 1 1. 5 1 1001 200 900 1 000 : A (2 ) 424 424 (, % ) (, % ) CuSi Si 17 18 27 28 CuMn Mn 30 23 24 CuP P 814 AlFe Fe 20 30 (3 ) 425 425 (, % ) ( mm ) ( ) ( ) Al-Mn Mn 9 11 Mn 10 15 9001 000 850 900 Al-Be Be 23 Be 5 10 1 0001 200 900 950,,, 1. 20,, ; 2., ( 200 ),, 110 3. 300,,,

4.,,, 1. (1 ) (2 ), 00. 2 mm( ) (3 ) ( ) (4 ), (, ),, 1/ 3, 2. (1 ),, (2 ), (3 ),,,, (4 ),, 3.,,,, 0. 2 mm ( ) 4. 111

,,, 1. 426 426, ; ;, ;, ;, ;, ;, ; ;,,, ;, ;, ; (, ; ;, ( ), ;, ;, ; ;, ; ),,, ;,, ;, ;, ;, CO ;,, ;, ;,, ;, ;, ; ;, ;, ; ;,, ;, ;, ; ;,,,,, ;,, ; 112

, ;, ;,,,,, ; ;,,,, ; ; ;,, ; ; ; ;, 2. 427 427,,,,, ;,,,,,,,, ;,,,,,,, ;,,, ;,, ;,,,,,,,, ;, ;,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,, ;, ;,, ;,,, ;,,, ;,,,,, 113

,, ;, ;,, ;,, ;,, ( ), ;,, ;,,,,, ;,,,, ;, ;,, ; ;,,, ;,, ; ;,,,,, ;,,,,,, ;,,, ; ;, ;,,,, ; ( ) ;,,,,,,, ; ;,,, ;,,, ;,,,,,, ; ;, ;,, ;,,,,,,, 114

1. Z145A, Z145A, 422 Z145A,, 500 mm400 mm, 355 mm 280 mm 422 Z145A 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 (1 ) Z145A 1) Z145A ( 4 23 ),,, :,,, 424,,,, 20,,,, 115

423 Z145A 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 424 Z145A 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 2) Z145A ( 422 ) 4, 4,, 4 25 :,, 4,, 426,,,,, 3), 427, 6 mm,,,,,,,,,,,, 116

425 Z145 A 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 426 Z145 A 1 2 3 4 5 4) Z145A 428,,, : ;, ; ;, ; ;, Z145A,,,, (2 ) Z145A,, : 1),,, 2),,,, 3),,, 427 Z145 A 1V 2 3 4 ( ) 5 ( ) 6 7 8 9 117

4),, 5),, 6),,,,, 7),,, (3 ) Z145A Z145A,,,,, : 1) 428 Z145 A 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 2), 3), 4) ;,, ;,,,, 5), (4 ) Z145A Z145A,, 1),,,,, 2),,,, 118,

,,,,, 150 mm,,,,,, 150 mm 3), 1 600 N0. 6 M Pa, :,,, 1 600 N 3540 mm, 200 / min,, 35, ( 3 ), HBS70 (5 ) 1), ;,,,,,,,,,,, 2),,, :,,,,,,,, 119

2. Z8612B Z8612B, 12 kg,,, (1 ) Z8612B 429 7,, 4, 429 Z8612B 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14, 430,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,, 431 120

430 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 432,,, 431 1 2 3 48 5 6 7 9 432 Z8612B 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 Z8612B 433,, 6 9,, 9,, 6 : ; ; ; ;, ;, Z8612B 12 kg, 400 mm400 mm 121

, ( 350 mm230 mm), (2 ), ( ), ( EK = mv 2 / 2 ) ( p1 - p2 ),, 434 433 Z8612B 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 434 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 (3 ) Z8612B 1), 2), 3),,, 4), 5), 6), 7),, (4 ) Z8612B Z8612B, : 1), O 2), 3),, 4), 5), 122

,,, 1. : (1 ),, :,,,,,,,, (2 ),, (3 ),,,,,,,, (4 ),,,,,,,,, 1580 mm,,,, 2.,,,, 123

,,,,,,,,,, V RH,,,, 3.,,,,,,,,, 4.,,,,, 1. :, ;,,,,,,,, (1 ),,, 1),, 2), 3),,, ; ; 124

(2 ) 1),,,,, 2),,, 3),,,, 4), (3 ),, : 1),,,, 2),,,,,,, 3),,,,, 4),,,,,,,,,, 2. (1 ),,, (2 ),,, (3 ),, (4 ),, (5 ),, (6 ),, 125

3.,, 51 300 mm, 1 600 mm, 150 mm, 75 mm: (1 ), 51 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 200400 mm,,,, 20 mm, 20 mm,,, 5 mm, (2 ) 1580 mm 300 mm, 40 mm, 35 mm,,,,,,,,, 5 mm,, (3 ) 10 mm ( ),,,,, 5 mm,,,,,, (4 ),,,,,,, 126 1.

,,, 52,,,, :,,,,, 52a,, ( ),, 52b,,,, 52c,,,,, ( ), 52d,,,,, ( ),,, ( ) ( ) 52 a) b) c) d ) 1 2 3 4 5 6,,, 2., ;,,, ( 53 ) (1 ) 53a,,,,,,,,, 15 mm,, ; 127

53 a) b ) c) d) e) 1 2 3 4 5 6, (2 ) 53b, 5 8 mm (3 ),, 53c,,, (4 ) 53d,, 53e,,,,,, 3.,,,,,, 54 :,,,,,,,,,,, 128 54 1 2 3 4

, 4. 3 3,,,, 55 55 a ) b) c) d) e) f ) g ),,,, 5.,,, ( ),,,, 56,,, (, ) ( ) : (1 ),, ;,,, (2 ),,, 129

56 1 2 3 4 5 6 (3 ),,,, (4 ),,,,,, (5 ),,,,, 3 3 ; 1. (1 ), (2 ), (3 ) ( ),,,, (4 ), (5 ), 51 51 mm 500 > 500 1 000 > 1 0002 000 > 2 0003 000 > 3 000 300 > 300800 > 800 40 60 100 150 250 30 60 100 30 60 100 120 150 40 100 100 1520 > 2025 > 2530 > 3040 > 40 30 50 70 130

(6 ) ; ; ; ;, 52 52 mm ( ) ( ) 500 500 1 000 > 1 000-0. 2-0. 3-0. 5 + 0. 2 + 0. 3 + 0. 5 2. (, ),, ;,,,, 2030 mm, 100 mm 100 mm,, 200250 mm 3.,,, (1 ),,,,, 20 mm,,,,,, ;,,,, (2 ) ( ),, 1),,,,, 2),, CO, 3) ( 131

1540 mm),, ( ) ( ), CO,,,,,, (3 ), 1020 mm,,, (4 ),,,,,,,, 4.,,,,,,,,,,,,,,, 5.,,,,,,,,,, 12 mm,,,,,,, 132,,

1. (1 ),, (2 ), (3 ) : ; ; (4 ) (5 ) (6 ), (7 ) 2. (1 ), (2 ), (3 ),, 15 45 mm (4 ),, (5 ),, (6 ) 3. (1 ),, (2 ), (3 ), (4 ),, (5 ), (6 ),,,,,, : 1. (1 ), (2 ),,, 133

(3 ),,,, 2. (1 ),, (2 ) ;, ; ; ; (3 ),,, 3. (1 ),, ;, Y ( 57 ),,,,,,, (2 ) 57 1 2 3Y,,,,,,,,, 12,,,, (3 ),,, ( ),,, 134

,,, 1.,,,,,,,,,, 58 58,,,,,,, 2.,,,,, 3.,, 59a, d d0,,,, 59b 59c,,,,, 135

,,,,, 4.,,,,,, = +, 5.,,,, 510,, 59 510 a) b) c) 1 2 3 1. (1 ),,, A > A > A > A (51),,,,,, 136

, (2 ),,, A < A < A < A (52),,, (3 ),, A > A > A (53),, (4 ),,,,,, 2., 511 : (1 ) 511 a) b ) c) d) 1),,, 2), 3),,, (2 ) 137

:,,, ;, ; (3 ),,, (4 ),, :,, ;,,,, ;,,, 1.,,,,, : (1 ),, (2 ),,,,, (3 ),,,, (4 ),,, 138 (5 ), (6 )

, (7 ),,,,, 2., ( ),, (1 ) 1), 2) (),,,, 3), (2 ) 1),,,,, 2),,, 3),,,,, 4),,, (3 ) 1), 2), 3),, (4 ) 1),,, 2), (5 ) 1) 2), 139

(6 ),, (7 ),,,,, 3. (1 ), (2 ) 1/ 2, 2/ 3,, 512 4. 512 a ) h 1 < ( 1/ 2 2/ 3) h b ) h < h 1, b < b 1 c) 1 2 3 4,,,, (1 ), : = + 100 % (54) 1), ;,,,, 140

2),, 3),,,, (2 ),,,,, 50 % 100%,, 1/ 31/ 2,,,, (3 ) 1), 2),, 3),, ;,,,, 5.,,,,,,, (1 ) 1) 513 513a, ; 513b, ; 513c, 2) 514,, 513 a) b) c) 141

514 3), ( ) ( ),, ( 515 ) 515 4), ( 516 ) 5), ( 517 ) 516 517 (2 ) 1), ( 518 ) 2), ( 519 ),,,, 3), ( 520 ) 4),, ( 521 ) 142

518 519 520 521 5), ( 522 ), 522 6.,,,,,, 523 ; 524,, 1 # 2 # 3 #, 3 3 ;, 525 160 t H T200, 1 180 kg, 55 mm, 44 mm,,, 526 ZGMn13,,,, 143

523 524 1 2 3 4 123 1 # 2 # 3 # 4 56 7 525 160 t 144

526,, 1. 527 ( ),,,,,, ( ),,, 2., 528,,,,,,, 527 1 2 3 4 528 1 2 3 145

,,,,,,,, () ( ), 1. (1 ),,,,, : 1),,,, ;,, 2),,,, 3), (, ),, 4) (2 ) 1) ( ), ;,, 2) ;,, ; ;, 146 3),

, 4),,,,,,,,,, (3 ) 1),,, 2),,,,,,, 3),,,, :,, 4) 5) 6),, 7),,,, (4 ) 1), 2), 3), 4), (5 ) 1) : ; ( ) ;,,,,,,, ; ;,,, 2),,,, 147

,, 3),,,,,,, 4),,,,,,,,, 5),,, 2. (1 ), 61 61b,,, 62,, 61, a) b ), 63 62 63 (2 ) 1),, 2),, 3,, (,, ) 148 3) (3 )

1) 2),, (4 ) 1) (), 2),, ;, 3),, ;,, 4), 5) 6) ( ) 3. (1 ),,,,,,,,, 64, 65a, 65b 64 65 a ) b) (2 ) 1) (),, 2) 3),,,, 4),,,, 5),, 6),, 149

7), (3 ) 1), 2), 3),,,,,, 1.,,,,,,,,,,,,,, ;,,,,,,, 2.,,,,,, 3.,,,,,,,,,, 4.,,,, 150

,,,, 61 61 ( ) 1., 2. 3., 4., 5., 1.,, 2.,, 3., ( ) 1. 2.,, 3.,, 4.,, ; 1., ( ), 2.,, 3., 4., 1. 2. 3.,, 4. 151

:,, ;,,,,, 1.,,,,, 4 (1 ),,,,,,,,,,,,,,,, ;,,,,, (2 ),, 750900,,, 60 mm,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,, (3 ),, 700 152

850, ;,,,, (4 ),,, :,,,,,,,, 2.,,,,,,,,,,,, :,,,,, ( ) ( ) ( ),, 3.,,,,,,,,, 4.,,,,, 153

,,,,,, 800,,,,, 20,, 24 h; 20,,, 180 2 h, 5.,,, 1. 0 1. 5 mm,,,,,,,, 6. ( ),, 200300,,,,, 300,,,,, ; 7.,,,,,, 154 1. 5 :

(1 ),,,, : 1) 2) 3) GB/ T 64141999 4), (2 ),,, 0. 5 mm (3 ),, (4 ),,,, (5 ) 2., : (1 ), (2 ) 80 %,, (3 ),, 62 62 (cm 2 ) < 200 2001 000 1 00010 000 > 10 000 2 200 cm 2 1 1 000 cm 2 4 40,, 3. 155

,, : (1 ) 1), 10, 2), (2 ) 1) 2), 63 3), 63 M T 11 13 11 13 11 13 8 10 8 10 8 10 4., 10,,,,, ( ),,, ;, ;,, 1. (1 ), ( ) ; ( ) ; ; 156 1)

30 mm, 20 mm 0. 5 mm,, 30 mm1 mm,,,,,,,,,,,, 2) ( J) ( J/ cm 2 ) GB/ T 38082002, V U, 30 mm, 20 mm120 mm; GB/ T 62961986,, U V, U U V () ( ), () ( ), ( ),,, ( ) V U 10 mm10 mm50 mm, 2 mm,, GB/ T 2291994 () ( ), 3),,,,, HBS, 450 ;, HBW, 650 GB/ T 231. 12002 157

,,, ( ),,, e, e, H RAH RB HRC 3 H RB, = 130 - e, H RA 490. 3 N, H RA6085, HRA H RC, = 100 - e H RC 1 373 N, H RC2067, GB/ T 2301991 (2 ) 2.,,,,, ( ), :,, ; X,, ; ( ) 3.,,, ( ) ;,,, 158

4.,,,,, GB/ T 56161985,,, :,,,,,,,,,,, ( ), ( ) 159

,,,, :,, 1.,,, :,,,,,, 2.,,,, 3.,,,, F MEA,,, 160

( ) ;,,, 1.,,,,,, 2.,,,,,, ( QFD DOE )(71) 71, / ( ) ( ) / / ( ) / / / / ( ) / / ( ) / ( ) / / / / / (1 ) (2 ),,, 161

(3 ) ( ), 1),, ( ) F MEA ( ) 2),,, 3) ( ),,, (4 ),, (5 ) 1), ( ) 2),, 3), 4),, ( ) ( ),,,, (6 ) ( ),, 162

1.,,,,, (1 ),,, 1),, 72 72 mm < 200 200 6 8 4 6 6 3 35 200 200500500 10 12 610 12 4 68 > 500 500 15 20 15 20 57 2),,,,,, 1520 mm, 1230 mm,,,, 71, 3),,, 72a 72b 71 72 a) b ) a) b ) 163

4),,,,, (2 ),, 1) ( ),, 73 73 a) b ) 2), 74 3),, 75 74 75 a) b ) (3 ) 3 1) 76a,,, 76b, 2),, 77,, 76 77 a) b) a) b) 164

(4 ) : 1),, 78a,, 78b, 78 a) b) 2) 79a,, 79b,, 3) 710a, 2 #, 710b,,, 79 710 a) b ) a) b) 2.,,, (1 ),,, 10, 34,,,,, (2 ),,,,, (3 ),, ;,, ;,,, ;,,,,, 165

,,,,,, ;,,, ;,,,,,,,,,, 1. (1 ) GB/ T 26841981, > 0. 020 mm, 0. 020 mm,, : v, cm/ s ; 166, 2. 62 g/ cm 3 ; 1, g/ cm 3 ; g, 980 cm/ s 2 ;, r, cm v = 2-1 9 r2 g 15 0. 011 3 Pas g/ cms; (71),,, 16

5 min, 100 mm ( 711 )100 mm,,,, : X = m1 X, % ; m1, g; m2, g (2 ) - m2 m1 100% (72) 1) 500. 1 g,, 200. 1 g 2) 600 ml, 390 ml 10 ml 5% ( N a4 P2 O7 10 H2 O), 35 min 3) ( 712 ),, 15 min ( 4 000 r/ min), 4) 125 mm, 30 s, 10 min, 100 mm 5) 4 ) 3 5 min, 711 712 1 2 3 4 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 6) 5 min,,, 140160 7),, 72 (3 ) 1), 2), 73 167

73 ( ) 10 12 14 16 18 20 22 24 5 40 5 30 15 5 00 4 50 4 40 4 30 4 15 2. SNJ (1 ) ( 713 ), V ( 714 ),,,, 713 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 714 (2 ) 1) ( 715 ) 900 1 000 g,,,, 40 mm1 mm,, 715 1 2 3 4 2) XC T - 161, 5 6 7 ( 1 300), ZK - 1, 3),,,, 168

100 V, 600,, 4),,,,,, V, V, 5), V 1 mm, ( ),, 2 min,,, 6),,,,, 7),, 3. SLR (1 ),, 320, 2030 s, ( 4 mm), (2 ) 1),,, 320 2) 160 g ( ) ( 716 ), 3,,,,, 3),, 4),,,, 716 1 2 3 4 169

5),,,,,, ;, 20 s, 4 mm,,, 6),,,, (3 ) A, B, C, 7 17 3, 717 (4 ) 1),,,,,, 2),,,, 3),, 4),,,,,,,,,,, 74 :, :,,,,,,,,, 170

74 1 2, 1, 3 4 1 h 1 5 6 3 ( 1 ) 1 7 8 2 9 10 1 1 2 3 4 2 1 ( ), 10,, :, 0. 51. 0 h,,, 15,,, 1. (1 ),,,,,,,, (2 ),,,,,, 171

(3 ),,,, ;,,, ;,,,,,, (4 ), 2. (1 ),,,,,, (2 ),,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,, (3 ),,,,,,,,,,, 2. 510 / ( + ) = 20%,,,,,,,,,,, 172

3.,,,,,,, 4.,,, (),, 5.,,,,,, 1.,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,, ( ),, 2.,,,,,,,, ( ),, 173

( ),,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,, 3.,,,,,,,,,,,,,, 4.,,,,,,,,,, 5.,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,, 174

1. (1 ) 1) wc = 3. 2% 3. 6%,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,, ws i > 2. 5%,, wc = 3. 3% 4. 0 %, ws i = 2. 4% 2. 9% ;, wc = 3. 0% 3. 8 %, ws i = 2. 0% 2. 6% 2),,,,,, wm n = 0. 2% 0. 3% ;, wm n < 0. 4% ;, wm n = 0. 4% 0. 8 %, 3),, wp 0. 08%,, wp = 0. 03 % 0. 05%,, 4),,,,,,, 0. 02%,,, ws 0. 10% (2 ) 1),, CE = 4. 3% 4. 6 %,,,, wc = 3. 4 % 3. 6%, 175

, ws i = 2. 6 % 3. 0% ;, ws i = 2. 4 % 2. 6%, 2) wm n = 0. 4% 0. 6%,, 3),,,, ws < 0. 02%,, ws = 0. 06 % (3 ) 1),,,, ( wc = 2. 5% ),,, ( w( C + Si) = 2. 9% 4. 2%, ),,,, 0. 3 0. 56 ( ),,,,,,, 0. 250. 28 ), ( 2),,,, ( 2. 03. 0 ),, wm n = 0. 4% 0. 7 %, wm n = 0. 6% 0. 8%,, wm n, = 1. 0% 1. 2%, 3) ws = 0. 4%,,,,, ws 0. 20% 4),,,,, ( ), 400550,,,, wp 0. 18 %, 176 2. (1 )

1), ( ), 2),,, 1 200,,, 3) 3 :, ( wm n = 0. 5% 0. 8 % ),,,,,,,,, wm n/ ws > 1. 71 4) ( wp < 0. 05% ),, ( Fe2 P ),,,,, (2 ) ( ) 1),,,,,,,,, wm n/ wc 810,,,, 2) wsi = 0. 3% 1. 0%,, 3),,,, 4), ( 0. 03 % ), 1.,,,,,,, 177

FeSi75,,, (1 ) ( ) ( 718 ),,,,,, 718 1 2 ( ) 3 4 5 6 (2 ),,, ( 719 ), 0. 05 mm 0. 1 mm, 0. 1 mm, ( 75) 200 2 mm, 3% 5% 719, 12, 1 2 3 2002 h, 5080 mm, 1030 mm, (0. 05% 0. 12% ),,, 75 ( mm ) 20480 25700 50900 ( kg) < 200 200 450 > 450 (3 ),, 1/ 4 1/ 5,,,,,,,,,,, 0. 3% 0. 6%, 178

30 min,,,,, 0. 05% 0. 20% (4 ),, ( 720 ), 0. 1 mm 3 mm, 200, 0. 08%, 0. 05% 0. 10%,,,, (5 ), 721,,, 720 1 2 3 4 5 6 721 1 2 3 4 5, 0. 10 % 0. 15% 30 100 mm, 2040, < 30 mm, 40200, 200,,, 2. (1 ),,,,,,, ( Inductotherm ), 179

1), 2),,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,, 0,, 3), 4 h, (2 ) ( 7-6 ) 3., H T200 180 (1 ) 1), (, % ) : C: 3. 33. 5, Si: 1. 52. 0, Mn: 0. 50. 8, S < 0. 12, P < 0. 25 2) (, % ) :

76,, 1,,,,,, 2 3, :,,,,,,,, 4,,, 5,,,, C: 4. 19, Si: 1. 56, Mn: 0. 76, P : 0. 04, S: 0. 036 C: 3. 28, Si: 1. 88, Mn: 0. 66, P : 0. 07, S: 0. 096 Si: 75 Mn : 65 C: 0. 15, Si: 0. 35, Mn: 0. 50, P : 0. 05, S: 0. 05 3) ( % ) : C: : + 1. 71. 9, : - 0. 5; Si: - 15; Mn: - 20; S: + 50 (2 ) 1) x% ; (80 - x) % ; 20% 2) 3) C = Si = Mn = S = C - 1. 8 0. 5 % = 3. 4-1. 8 0. 5 % = 3. 2% Si 1. 75 % = % = 2. 06% 1-0. 15 1-0. 15 Mn 0. 65 % = % = 0. 81% 1-0. 2 1-0. 2 S 0. 12 % = % = 0. 08% 1 + 0. 5 1 + 0. 5 P = P = 0. 25% 4. 19 x + 0. 15 ( 80 - x) + 3. 2820 = 3. 2100 x = 60, 60% 4) ( 77) 5) = 0. 65 0. 75 % = 0. 89% 181

77 ( ) % C Si Mn S P 60 4. 19 2. 51 1. 56 0. 94 0. 76 0. 46 0. 036 0. 022 0. 04 0. 024 20 3. 28 0. 66 1. 88 0. 38 0. 66 0. 13 0. 096 0. 020 0. 07 0. 014 20 0. 15 0. 03 0. 35 0. 07 0. 50 0. 10 0. 050 0. 010 0. 05 0. 010 100 3. 20 1. 39 0. 69 0. 052 0. 048 3. 20 2. 06 0. 81 < 0. 08 0. 25 0. 00 0. 67 0. 12 (3 ) = 0. 12 % = 0. 18% 0. 65 5 t/ h, 5 t/ 10 = 500 kg, 101, 50060% = 300 kg; 50020% = 100 kg; 5000. 89% = 4. 45 kg; 5000. 18% = 0. 9 kg; 5001/ 10 = 50 kg; 50030% = 15 kg (4 ) 78 79, 7 10 78 % 510 min 98 8095 58 min 9598 15 min 6080 9598 9598, 3060 95 9095 7 10 min 90, 4070 79 % 10 min 100 100 710 min 100 90 100 100 57 min 9295 9598 98 100 8592 98 100 50 100 95 97 98 90 94 97 182

710 ( ) % Al Cu Mg Z n Si Mn Ni Pb Be T i Z r 15 0. 5 1. 5 210 13 1 10 0. 52 0. 5 1 0. 5 1 1 20 23 1 1. 5 Sn: 1. 5 25 48 2 3 1. 2 12 10 15 30 310 23 3 5 2 1 10 10 10 20 35 1 1. 5 0. 51 10 30 13 :, Zn Mg, Zn 10 % 15 %, Mg 15 % 30 % 10 % ( ) 4. 711 711 1., 400500,, 850 950, 1020 mm,, AlSi20, 2., 800, 0. 2 % 0. 4 %, 5 10 min,,, 25 mm 3., 1.,,, Al Cu50 2., 700, 3. 510 min,, 25 mm 1.,,, 1015 mm AlMn10 2., 0. 2 % 0. 4 % 3. 510 min,,, 25 mm 1. ( 3 % 5 % ) AlT i5 2., 5 10 mm, 3. 1 050 1 100, ;, 900950 1., 1/ 3 Al B1 2.,, 1 200 1 300 3.,, 4.,, 950, 1., 4060,,, Cu - P, 50 mm 2. 3 6 mm,, 15 mm 3. 100 200 mm 4., 1 2001 250,, 5. 510 min,,,,,, 30 mm 183

1. 10 30 mm,, ;, Cu - Mn Cu - Si 2.,, 1 1001 200 3.,,,, 1. 20 30 mm,, 2., 1 200 1., 2.,,, Al - Fe 3. 4., 5., 1.,, 1. 0 % 1. 5 % ( 80 % Cu - Ni, 20 % ), w M n = 0. 1 % 2.,, 5. (1 ) 1) ( ZnCl2 ),, : 0. 1% 0. 3% ( ) ZnCl2,,,,, 690720 ( C2 Cl6 ) C2 Cl6,, ZnCl2, : wc 2 Cl 6 = 0. 2% 0. 6 %, : wc 2 Cl 6 = 0. 5% 0. 75% 690720 730750, C2 Cl6, C2 Cl6, Na2 SiF6 K2 SiF6 812 min ( MnCl2 ) MnCl2 0. 1% 0. 2 %, 700720, MnCl2 ZnCl2,, ZnCl2,,,, Na3 AlF6,,, Al2 O3 Na2 SiF4 NaN O3 (KN O3 ) + C,, N acl N a3 AlF6 Na2 SiF6 0. 3% 0. 5% ( ),,, NON O2 CO2 Na2 O 184

, 2 ), Cl2 F12 ( 12)(Ar N2 ) (N2 - Cl2 N2 - F1 2 ),,,,, wcl 2 = 5% 10%,,, wn 2 > 99. 6%,, 100 ppm ( ),, 0. 3% 1. 0%,, 3% 5 %,,,, 3),, H +,,, 100 kg ZL102, 250300 A 0. 5 0. 7 A/ cm 2, 2040 min, 25% 30%,, ( wt i = 0. 01% 0. 03% ), 4),,,,, 0. 2% 0. 3% ( ), Al - Re ( wr e = 10 % ) 720750,, 760780 (2 ) 1), ( ) 10 min, 1520 min 1% 2%, 0. 1% 0. 2% ( ),,,,,, ZnCl2,, wzn Cl 2 = 0. 1% 0. 15% ; CCl4 C2 Cl6, PH 2, 2) Cu2 O Cu2 O,, 712 3), 185

712 1., w P = 0. 03 % 0. 06 % 2., ( ) 0. 005 % 0. 01 %, 1. : w Zn = 0. 5 % 1 %, 2. :, 1. Cu - LiLi - Ca, w Li = 0. 01 % 0. 02 % 2., LiO H ( ) ; ( SiO2 SnO2 ) ( Al2 O3 ) (ZnOMnO),, ;,,, (3 ),,,,, MgOMg3 N2 H2 MgOMg3 N2,,,,,,,,,,, 1),,,,,,, 100150 mm,,, 2),, : ; ;, t < 700, Mg3 N2 ; C2 C16,,, 186 1.

(1 ) ( 722 ),,,,, 4 : ( ) ( ), 713 (2 ),, ( ) ( ),,,,, 722,, 1 2 3 4,,, 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 713,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,, 187

,,,,,, 3 2. (1 ) ( 723 ) ( ) 0. 5 t1. 5 t3 t5 t10 t20 t, 100 t, 300 t 714 (2 ) 723 1 2 3 4,, 5 6 7, 8 9 10 11,,, 714,,,,,,,,, ( ),,, 3 ( ) ( ),, 188

,,,, 6 300 V 10 000 V,,,,,,,, 75%,,,,,,, 1),, ( ),,, 2),, : 2Fe + O2 2FeO Si + O2 SiO2 2Mn + O2 2MnO 4P + 5O2 2P2 O5 FeOSiO2 MnO P2 O5 ( CaO),,,, 1% 2%,,,, 3),,,, 1 530,,, 189

,, ( ),, 4),, FeO,, : ( < 0. 35 % ), ( > 0. 35 % ) :, 10 15 min,, ( CaO) : C + ( FeO) CO+ [ Fe] ( CaO) + ( FeS) ( CaS) + ( FeO),,, : Si + 2 ( FeO) ( SiO2 ) + 2 [ Fe], 2530 min :,, 1520 min, ( CaC2 ) :, : ( CaO) + 3C( CaC2 ) + CO C + ( FeO) CO+ [ Fe] CaO + ( FeS) ( CaS) + ( FeO) CaC2 + 3 ( FeO) + ( CaO) 2 ( CaO) + 3 [ Fe] + 2CO CaC2 + 3 ( FeS) + 2 ( CaO) 3 ( CaS ) + 3 [ Fe] + 2CO,,, ( ), 2025 min,,,,,,, :,,,,,,,,, 190

( ) 3.,, > 5010 000 Hz (1 ) 724, ( ),, ( ), ( ),, ( ),, 715 724 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 715,, 3 :,,,,,,,,,,,,,, ( ) 0. 2 mm 0. 35 mm, L U,,, 60 % 65 %, 191

,,,,,,, (2 ),, ( 725 ),,,,,,, ( cos 725 0. 2 ),, ( Inductotherm ),,,,,,,,,,, 1.,,,,,, 192

, : ; ;,, 2.,,,, : (1 ),,,,,,, 1) ; ( ) ; 2), 3),, 4) 5),,,,,,,,,, (2 ) 1),, 2),, 3),, 4),, 5),, 6) 7), 8),, 9), 10 ), 193

1., ( ),,, ; ;,,, 2.,, : ; : ; : X ; : X,, (1 ) ( ),, ( ), ( F MECA) (2 ),, 3., ( ),, 3 (1 ),, (2 ),,,, 194 (3 )

,, ( ),, 1.,,,,,, A3 18 22 mm, 3 5 mm ( 80100 mm), 726, 727, 728, AB C 726 727 728 1 2 3 1 2 3 2.,, (1 ), ;,,,, (2 ), (3 ),,, 195

3.,, 3 (1 ), (2 ),,, (,, ) (3 ),,, 4.,, ( ), 1. 52 mm,,,,,, ( ),,, 5.,, ( ), 729, :,,,,, 730,,,,,, 6.,, 196

729 730 1 2 3 4 5 1 3 2 4 5 6 7 8 9 ( ),, ( ),, ( ), 3,,,,,, ( ) 8 mm 10 mm 12 mm 3, 7. (1 ),,,,,,,, (2 ),, 716 (3 ),,, ;, 197

716 1. 2. 3. 4.,,,,,,, 2050 mm,,,,,,, (4 ) ; 1),,,, 2) :,,,, 23,, > 1, 25,,,,,,, 3,, 198

,,, 1.,,,,,,, 81,, (1 ) 81,,,,, 81,,,,,, 82h (2 ),, 82a ;,,, 82b;, ( ),,, 82c ;,,, 82d;,,,, 82e;,,,,, 82f;,,,, 82g;,,,,,,, 199

82,, 2.,,,,,,,,,,,,, 83, 5 15, : 1, 2 ( ) ; 3 4,, 3 4 ; 58, ; 9 1 9 2 8, 83 a) b) ( 19 ),,, ( ),,,, 200 3.,,,

,,,,,,,,,,, 84,, 84a, 84b,, 12, :,, 84c,,, 84d 84 a) b ) c) d) 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9,,,,,, 4.,, 85,, 4,, 2,,,,, :,, ;,, 201

,, ; 4 2,,,, :,,,,,,, ;,, ;,,,, 5. 85 a) b ), ;,,, (1 ),,,,,, 86, : 1),, 300500 mm 2),, 100 mm,,,, 3),, 200 mm,, 200300 mm,, 202

,,, (2 ), 87, : 86 1 2 3 4 87 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 1),, 800 mm, 400 mm 2),, 300 mm, 500 mm, 34, 200 mm 3),, 4),, 300400 mm, 250300 mm (3 ) 1),,, 88,,,,,,,,, 2),, 89,,,,,,,,, 203

88 1 2 3 89 1 2 3,,,,, (4 ) 1) 810, 4 4,, 10, 2),,, 811,,,,,, 810 811 1 2 3 4 5,,,,,,,, 204 1. (1 )

,, : 0. 20. 3 M Pa ; 0. 40. 7 MPa ; 0. 72. 5 M Pa ; 2. 5 MPa 11. 5 MPa, 2. 5 M Pa, 1. 5 M Pa, : 1), 2),,,,,, 3),,,,, 812,,,,,,,,,, 812, 1 2 3 4 813 814 5 6 7,,, 813 814 205

20 60, :, ; ; ;, ; :,, ;,,, (2 ) ZB35 ZB355ZB356ZB3512 ZB3518 ZB3518 1) ZB3518 4,,,,, 815 2) ZB3518 ( 816 ),,,, 816a 815 1 2 3 4 5,,, ( ),,,, 816b ( ),,,,, 816c,,,,,,,, 816d 2. (1 ) 817,,, ( 0 = 1. 5 g/ cm 3 ), ( 0 = 1. 71. 9 g/ cm 3 ),,,,,,, 206

816 ZB3518,,, ; (2 ), 8 18, 6 1),, ( 817 a ) b) 1 2 3 207

818 a) b) c) d) e) f) ), 818a 2),, ( ), 818b 3),,,, 818c 4),,, 818d 5),,, 818e 6),,, 818f :, ;,, 240300 ;,, ;, :, ;,, 819 :,, ;, 180 3.,, 820,,,,,, 208

819 a) b ) c), d) e) f) 820 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8, ( ) ( ),,, ;,,, 821 821 1 2 11 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 12 209

, 822 822 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13, : 1.,, (1 ),,,, 81,,, :, = h t (81) h, 210 t, s mm;

81 ( kg ) < 100 t 1 = S m d ( mm ) 35 6 8 915 S 1. 6 1. 9 2. 2 100 1 000 t 2 = S 1 3 m d S 1 = 1. 52. 0 ( S 1 ) > 1 000 t 3 = S 2 m d ( mm ) 10 11 20 2140 > 40 S 2 1. 1 1. 4 1. 7 1. 9 : SS 1 S 2 ; d ; m 82 82 ( mm ) ( mm/ s ) ( mm ) ( mm/ s ) > 40 515 10 4 20 30 4010 10 20 < 4 30 100, 82,, 1 823 80 kg, 800 mm, 55 mm, 14 mm,, m = 80 kg, d = 14 mm, h = 55 mm, l = 800 mm, 823 82 t = S m, S = 2. 2, t = 2. 2 8019. 7 ( s) 81 = h t = 55 19. 7 = 2. 8 ( mm/ s) 82 (1020) mm/ s,, 6 s,,, 823, 12 12, h h3 h3 = h1 + h2 = hcos12+ lsin12= 550. 978 1 + 8000. 207 9 = 220. 1 ( mm ) = h3 t = 220. 1 19. 7 = 11 ( mm/ s), 12, 82, (2 ) 211

: A = A, cm 2 ; m, ; t, s ; kg; hp, cm m 0. 31 t hp (82), 83,,,,,, : 824 83 0. 35 0. 42 0. 50 0. 41 0. 48 0. 60 824 hp = h0 - hp, cm; h0, cm; hn, cm; hc, cm h 2 n 2 hc (83) hn = 0, hp = h0 ; hn = hc, hp = h0 - hc 2 2 600 kg, 15 mm,,, 825 m = 600 kg, d = 15 mm, hc = 70 cm, hn = 30 cm, h0 = 60 cm 8-1 t = S1 3 md, S1 = 1. 8, t = 1. 8 3 6001537. 4 ( s ) 8-1 = hc t = 700 37. 4 18. 7 ( mm/ s) 82, ; hn = hc 2, hp = h0 - hc 8 825 212

83 hp = h0-83 = 0. 48 82 A= h 2 n 2 hc m = 60-0. 31t hp 14. 7 cm 2 (3 ) = 30 2 = 53. 6 (cm) 270 600 0. 310. 4837. 453. 6 = 14. 7 ( cm2 ), 84, 84 A A A 11. 061. 11 11. 111. 15 1 1. 21. 4 1 1. 52 1 ( 1. 31. 5 ) (1. 11. 2 ) 100 1 000 kg 1 ( 1. 31. 5 ) (1. 11. 2 ) 1 000 kg 2,, AAA= 11. 21. 4, 14. 7 cm 2, : A= 1. 2 A= 1. 214. 7 = 17. 6 cm 2, A= 1. 4 A= 1. 414. 7 = 20. 6 cm 2 6, 2. 45 cm 2, 8 5, 5, 17. 6 cm 2, 8. 8 cm 2, 5 20. 6 cm 2, 826 8 826 2. (1 ) a) b) c) 86 200 300 mm, A 1/ 3, 120200 mm, A1/ 3 (2 ) 827,, : AAA = ( 2. 0 2. 5)(1. 5 2. 5 )1 213

85 a b c a b c a b c D (cm 2 ) ( mm ) ( mm ) ( mm ) ( cm 2 ) ( mm ) ( mm ) ( mm ) (cm 2 ) ( mm ) ( mm ) ( mm ) ( cm 2 ) ( mm ) 1 0. 5 11 9 5 0. 5 6 4 10 1 2. 4 16 11 18 1 2. 3 17 2 0. 8 14 12 6 0. 8 8 5 12 2 3. 6 19 14 22 2 3. 1 20 3 1. 15 18 15 7 1. 2 10 6 15 3 4. 8 23 15 25 3 4. 2 23 4 1. 5 20 18 8 1. 5 11 7 17 4 7. 2 28 18 31 4 5. 7 27 5 2. 25 24 21 10 2. 25 13 9 21 5 9. 5 32 22 35 5 8. 0 32 6 3. 1 30 26 11 3. 1 14 10 26 6 13. 8 38 28 42 6 11. 3 38 7 4. 55 40 30 12 4. 5 17 11 33 7 19. 5 46 32 50 7 15. 9 45 8 6. 0 45 41 14 6. 0 20 12 37 8 28. 0 56 40 58 8 22. 0 53 9 9. 2 56 52 17 9. 2 24 16 46 9 38. 5 65 44 70 9 33. 2 65 10 12. 0 58 52 22 12. 0 28 20 50 10 56. 0 80 60 80 10 50. 3 80 86 ( kg ) ( mm ) 35 58 812 1220 A ( cm 2 ) ( kg ) ( mm ) 35 58 812 1220 A ( cm 2 ) 0. 3 0. 5 1. 5 1 1 1 2 3 2. 5 2 2 0. 5 0. 7 2 1. 5 1. 5 1 3 5 3 2. 5 2. 5 0. 7 1 1. 5 1. 5 1. 5 5 10 3 3 3 11. 5 2 1. 5 1. 5 10 30 4 4 4 1. 5 2 2 2 2 30 50 5 5 827 a ) b ) c) d) 87, A> 3 cm 2, 1 214

87 a( mm ) b( mm ) c( mm ) A ( cm 2 ) a( mm ) b( mm ) c( mm ) A (cm 2 ) D( mm ) A ( cm 2 ) 1 13 11 8 1 1 16 12 18 2. 5 1 18 2. 5 2 16 13 10 1. 5 2 19 15 18 3 2 21 3. 5 3 18 15 12 2 3 22 18 18 3. 6 3 24 4. 5 4 20 16 14 2. 5 4 22 16 22 4. 2 4 27 5. 7 5 22 18 15 3 5 26 20 22 5 5 30 7 3.,,,,,,,,, 82,, = 0. 350. 5, t : : AAA= 11. 21. 4 t = (2. 5 3. 5 ) 3 md (84) AAA= 0. 8( 1. 21. 5 ) 1 AAA= (1. 54) (24) 1 4.,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,, AAA= 1. 21. 11,,,, 88,,,, 215

88 ( mm ) ( mm ) ( mm ) ( mm ) 40 60 80 100 ( ) 35 60 60 40 2 1 40 60 60 40 2 1 45 60 60 40 5 1 50 80 80 60 3 2 1 55 80 80 60 4 2 1 60 80 80 60 5 2 1 70 100 100 80 6 3 2 1 80 100 100 80 8 4 2 1,, 1. 82 828 5. 828 a) ( h 1 ) b) c),,,,,, 829,,, ; ;,, 6.,,,,,,,, 216,,

,,, 830 829 830 1 2 3 4 1.,, : (1 ) (2 ), (3 ),,, 831,,, (4 ),, (5 ), ( 832 ) (6 ), (7 ),, 832 831 832 a) b) a) 3 b ) 4 1 2 3 4 1 2 3 217

2. (1 ),,,,,,,, V () M = V A = A M : (85),, ;, (2 ), ( ),, 1) d 5, 4,,, : M = d/ 2, ( ), (86) 2), a b,, : M = ab 2 ( a + b) : M = a/ 4 (87) (88) 3) d 2. 5,, : M = d/ 4 (89) 4) d, : M = d/ 6 5), ( d 5 ), d K, K 89 ; 25 %, 89 K ( 810) 4 d 2 d d d/ 2 K 1. 02 1. 1 1. 14 1. 17 6) (, ab) ( d),,,, : 218

M = ab 2( a + b) - d ( 811) 7) ( a, b) ( d),,,, : M = ab 2( a + b - d) ( 812) 8), ( ), r, : M r, 2 r 3 833, 72 mm, 811 : M = : ab 2( a + b) - d = 7. 2 11. 5 2( 7. 2 + 11. 5 ) - 5 = 2. 56 (cm) 4 834, M = 812 ab 2( a + b - d) = 7. 0 24. 0 2( 7. 0 + 24. 0-5) = 3. 23 (cm ) 833 ( 813),, 75 mm 811 : M = = ab 2( a + b) - d 7. 5 16. 0 2( 7. 5 + 16. 0) - 5 (3 ), = 2. 86(cm),,,,,,,,,, (4 ) 1) 834 219

M,,, M,,,,,, : a. MM= 1( 1. 11. 2 ) b. MMM= 11. 11. 2 c. MMM= 1(11. 03 ) 1. 2 M; M; M ( 814) ( 815) ( 816),,,,,, : I; F ; I;, % :, = I - F I I - F = ( I + I) ( 817) ( I + I) I ( 818) 100% 810, 810 % 12 15 25 30 15 20 15 20 15 20 35 40 30 35 30 35,, 811 220

811 = c = c + x c, x = K i X i x X i, K i, K 1 K 2 K 3 : X X 1 X 2 x = K i X i = K 1 X 1 + K 2 X 2 + K 3 X 3 W Ni Mn Cr Si Al K - 0. 53-0. 0354 + 0. 0585 + 0. 12 + 1. 03 + 1. 70, ZG270500 0. 32% 0. 40%, t= 1 500, 811 c 4%,, x = 0 = c = 4%,, 5 ( ), I (), 818,, 810 : = 14 %, I = I 14 - ( 819),, ( ),,,,, 4 5 ZG 230450, 210 kg, 1 500, a. 4 : b., 814 : M = 1. 1 M = 1. 1 3. 23 = 3. 55 (cm ) M = 1. 1 M = 1. 1 2. 86 = 3. 15 (cm ) M = 3. 23 cm M = 2. 86 cm,,, M = 2. 62 cm c. 811 = 4. 5% d. 5 ( ) 221

:, : d = 140 mm, h = 210 mm, 3. 24 l, 22 kg, 6. 8 l ( 53 kg ), : a = 133 mm, b = 266 mm, h = 200 mm, 6. 35 l, 43 kg, 13. 4 l ( 104 kg) e. 21, 75 mm, 835 125 mm, 266 + 2125 = 516 mm ( 3. 14 450 = 1 413 mm), : 1 413516 = 2. 74, 3 f., 819, 835 : 14-4. 5 I= 3. 24 4. 5 = 6. 8 l > ( 4. 66 l) ; : 14-4. 5 I= 36. 3 4. 5 = 39. 9 l > ( 13. 3 l) 2),,,,,,,, t (CSiP) ( M),, 836 M,,, 836, C ( Si + P ) M, t, ( t / t ),,,, N, 222

836, 837,,, 837 223

,, M1. 52. 0 cm, - N > 0 %,, ; - N 0 %,, 6 8 mm, M= 0. 4 cm, 1 300, 10 s, C = 3. 35%, ( S i + P ) = 2. 5 %, 836 = - 3. 8 % (: t, < - 3. 8 % ) ; 837 10 s M= 0. 4 cm,, N = - 3. 8% - N = - 3. 8 % - - 3. 8% = 0, 7, 40 mm, M= 2 cm, 18 s, 1 300, 836 = - 1. 5 %, 837 : - N = 0. 5 % > 0, N = - 1. 0%,,, 7,, = - 1. 5 %,, N 1. 5% 837, 40 s, ( t / t ) (- N ) % Mm, 838 d h 8 m = 120 kg, M= 1. 5 cm, t = 50 % t, = 0. 5 %, h= 2 d d 838, = 0. 5% M= 1. 5 cm t = 50% t, m = 120 kg, d = 70 mm, 3. 2 kg 1. 0%,,, d = 85 mm, 5. 5 k g,,,,,, ( ) : M, M, M = M cm; cm; P 100 10 P ( 820) 224

838 h = 2 d ( = 0. 5 % 1. 0 % ) 839,, 9 120 kg, M= 1. 5 cm, d = 85 mm, (- N ) = 1. 0%, P = 50%, M M= 1. 5 cm, 839 1. 5, P = 50%,, M= 1. 1 cm, M 10 840, M= 3. 1 cm, P = 60 %,? P 70%,? 839, M= 3. 1 cm P = 60 %, ( ) M= 2. 5 cm, M= 2. 5 cm, 225

839 840 P = 70%, 839 M= 2. 7 cm, M (2. 5 cm), 50 mm,,,,, t / t,,,,,,, 1. (1 ) 1),,,,,,,,, 2),,,,,, 226

,, (2 ), ;,,,, ;,,, ; ;, (3 ), 1),, ( 1 280),,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,, ;,,, 2),, V, ( 841 ),,,, ( 842 ), 3),,,, ( 843 ) 843, 844 844a, 841,, T ( ) ; 844b 227

842 843 a) 1 2 b ) 1 2 3/ 4,, 844 ; 844c 3/ 4, L ; 844d 844e,,, L ; 844f, L 1/ 31/ 2, L ; 844g 844h, ; 844i,, (4 ),,,,,, 34 h,, 228

, ( ) ( ) ( ),,,,,,,,, 2. (1 ) ( ), ( ) 0. 51. 0, 0. 61. 2, 100 mm100 mm, 0. 3 ; 100 mm100 mm, 0. 4,,,,, 845,, h T h0. 6 T, ;, h1. 2 T, h1. 35 T h2. 7 T, h1. 6 T h3. 2 T, 845,,, h T 812 (2 ),, 812 812 ( mm ) 1 d = ( 0. 30. 8 ) T 229

( mm ) d = ( 0. 30. 5 ) T 2 L = (2. 03. 0 ) b B = ( 0. 4 0. 8) a 3 B = ( 0. 4 1. 0) T L = (1. 03. 0 ) T 4 ( l < 150 mm, L = l) B = ( 0. 3 0. 6) T B = ( 0. 5 0. 7) T 5 ( b 200 250 mm, ) 6 B = ( 1. 0 1. 4) T = 20 30 7 B = ( 0. 8 1. 2) T 10 8 B = 0. 5 T 10 : d ; T ; ab ; L ; B 230 ;

1) 846,, : d = (0. 4 0. 5 ) D ( 821) d, mm ; D, mm 2) 847 846 ( ), 813 813 T ( mm ) ( kg ) ( ) ( % ) ( mm ) d t A B > 100 200 1 2 1012 > 200 300 1. 5 2. 5 1216 > 300 400 2. 5 3. 5 1620 > 400 500 3 4 2025 > 500 4 5 2530 < 15 000 4 5 1630 15 00060 000 4. 5 6. 5 2035 11 d 8 d 5 d 60 40 6080 4050 6080 5060 80100 6070 100120 7080 100180 7590 200 80100 > 60 000 5 7 2540 200 80100 3) 150 mm,, 848, 814, 1. 5 % 4%,, 847 ( ) 848 231

814 T ( mm ) ( kg/ m ) ( ) d 1 ( mm ) ( ) d 2 ( mm ) ( ) 30 5. 5 1 1. 5 3 4 1 40 10 2 2. 5 3 6 1 50 15. 5 3 4 4 6 1 60 22. 3 3 4 4 6 1 70 30. 3 3 4 5 8 12 80 41 5 6 6 8 23 90 50 5 6 6 8 23 100 62 5 6 8 10 23 110 75 5 6 8 10 23 120 89 5 6 10 12 23 130 104 5 6 10 12 23 140 121 5 6 10 12 23 150 139 5 6 10 12 23,,,, 11 ( 849 ) 129. 5 t, 18. 7 t, 8 t, 1 580, = 5%, 4 ( 3 ) : 2,, 1/ 2,, ( 1 000 mm) 3,, 30% 35%,, 7 t, 6. 5 t,, ( ), 14% (, 810, = 14%, 819 I= 33. 7 t ), 4. 8 t 85 23. 3 cm, 850 : 3. 6 h, 7. 3 h, 10. 3 h 232

849 850 d h 233

,, GB/ T 56111998, 8, 100 91 91,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,, 234

,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,, ( < 5 mm ) ( > 5 mm ) V,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,, 1.,,,, Na 2 O 2.,, 235

, ( ),,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,, 1., 2.,,,,,,,,,,, 236

,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,, 1 2 mm,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,, 237

,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,, V,,, ( ), K < 1,,,,, K < 1,,,,,,,,,,,, 238

,,,, 500,, 92,,,,, 92 5 11 3 10 6 4 2 6 6 4 3 5 4 3 4 5 2 4 3 1 3 47, ( TQC),, ( ),, ( SPC),,,, ; ; ; ; ;, ( ),,, 239