綠 (1) 沈 (Room 318)
類 臨 ( 料 ( 金 料 ) 糧 不 ( )
Green Technology ( 綠 )? the application of the environmental sciences to conserve the natural environment and resources ( ), and to curb the negative impacts of human involvement.
綠 類 recycling water purification sewage treatment 理 remediation flue gas treatment ( 理 ) solid waste management 理 renewable energy ( ) energy conservation ( ).etc.
, 類 綠
Sustainability Capable of being sustained. ( ) Capable of being continued with minimal long-term effect on the environment. ( )
Sustainable Development ( ) the World Commission on Environment and Development (1987). Achieving human development in a way that sustains planetary resources. (human consumption is occurring at a rate that is beyond Earth's capacity to support it.)
Population growth and developmental pressures spawned by an unequal distribution of wealth threaten the longterm health of humans and other species on the planet. The earth s ecosystem ( ) would be overwhelmed if all of the earth's inhabitants were to match the consumption patterns of wealthier nations.
Sustainable development requires alterations in the lifestyle of the wealthy ( ) to live within the carrying capacity of the environment. To achieve sustainability: there is a need for holistic responses to global issues such as urbanization and energy over-consumption. Better measures of ecological ( ) and social ( ) sustainability.
While sustainable development is a prerequisite for the long-term health of humans, it will not be possible to achieve sustainability in much of the world unless the toll of major health scourges, such as malaria ( ) and HIV (human immunodeficiency virus ) infection, is significantly reduced.
Sustainable Development economic development, social development, and environmental protection.
切 率 降 CO 2 量 量 綠 (HCFC) (HFC) 冷 (HFC) 冷
Image of the largest Antarctic ozone hole ever recorded (September 2006)
Montreal Protocol ( ) The Montreal Protocol on Substances That Deplete the Ozone Layer is an international treaty designed to protect the ozone layer ( ) by phasing out the production of a number of substances believed to be responsible for ozone depletion. The treaty was opened for signature on September 16, 1987 and entered into force on January 1, 1989 followed by a first meeting in Helsinki, May 1989. It has undergone seven revisions, in 1990 (London), 1991 (Nairobi), 1992 (Copenhagen), 1993 (Bangkok), 1995 (Vienna), 1997 (Montreal), and 1999 (Beijing). "Perhaps the single most successful international agreement to date...".
- The Montreal Protocol has led to reductions in the emissions of CFCs, atmospheric concentrations of the most significant compounds have been declining. By 2015, the Antarctic ozone hole would have reduced by only 1 million km² out of 25 (Newman et al., 2004).
Complete recovery of the Antarctic ozone layer will not occur until the year 2050 or later. Work has suggested that a detectable (and statistically significant) recovery will not occur until around 2024. With ozone levels recovering to 1980 levels by around 2068.
冷 數 冷 類 R-11 (CFC, CCl 3 F) R-12 (CFC, CCl 2 F 2 ) R-115 (CFC) R-22 (HCFC, CHClF 2 ) R-123 (HCFC, CHCl 2 CF 3 ) R-125 (HFC, CHF 2 CF 3 ) R-134a (HFC, CF 3 CFH 2 ) Ozone Depletion Number 1 1 0.8 0.05 0.016 Not rated 0
Class I substances have an ozone depletion potential (ODP) of 0.2 or higher, and include halons, chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs), methyl chloroform, carbon tetrachloride, and methyl bromide ( ). Class II substances are all hydrochlorofluorocarbons (HCFCs), which were developed as transitional substitutes for Class I substances and which have many of the same uses as CFCs.
R-22 (HCFC) 冷 R-407C 冷 (short term): R-32 (23%) + R-125 (25%) + R134a (52%) R-410A 冷 (long term): R-32 and R-125 (50/50 vt%)
Kyoto Protocol ( ) The Kyoto Protocol is a protocol to the international Framework Convention on Climate Change with the objective of reducing greenhouse gases ( ) in an effort to prevent anthropogenic climate change.
It was adopted for use on 11 December 1997 by the 3rd Conference of the Parties, which was meeting in Kyoto, and it entered into force on 16 February 2005. As of May 2008, 182 parties have ratified the protocol. Of these, 36 developed C.G. countries (plus the EU as a party in its own right) are required to reduce greenhouse gas emissions to the levels specified for each of them in the treaty (representing over 61.6% of emissions from Annex I countries), with three more countries intending to participate.
One hundred thirty-seven (137) developing countries have ratified ( ) the protocol, including Brazil, China and India, but have no obligation beyond monitoring and reporting emissions. The United States is the only developed country that has not ratified the treaty and is one of the significant greenhouse gas emitters.
切
1. 類
Energy Sources ( 類 ) (Primary Energy) Oil ( ) Natural Gas ( ) Coal ( ) Nuclear Energy ( ) Hydroelectricity ( 力 ) etc.
綠 (Renewable Energy) 1. Wind Energy, 2. Solar Energy, 3. Hydrogen Energy, 4. Bio-Energy 5. Hydroelectricity ( 力 ) 6. Geothermal Energy ( ) etc.
2. BP (British Petroleum ) Statistical Review of World Energy 2007
World primary energy consumption (2009) 力
Primary energy consumption patterns (2009) 力
Primary energy consumption per capita 2006 北 拉 利
Primary energy consumption per capita (2009)
Fossil fuel (oil, natural gas and coal) reservesto-production (R/P) ratios at end 2006 年 Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development Countries Europe and Middle East Section
Fossil fuel reserves-to-production (R/P) ratios at end of 2009
Reserves/Production (R/P) ratio - If the reserves remaining at the end of any year are divided by the production in that year, the result is the length of time that those remaining reserves would last if production were to continue at that level. R/R ratio = 年 量 / 年 量 ( 量 ) = 年
Oil reserves-to-production (R/P) ratios -2009
Proved oil reserves ( 量 ) at end 2006 Thousand million barrels (50 gallons/barrel)
Proved oil reserves ( 量 ) at end 2009
oil consumption ( 量 -2006) 北
oil consumption ( 量 -2009)
/ Chart of crude oil prices since 1861
Importance of Oil and History of Its Development 1859 年 Pennsylvania ( ) ( )
Oil: Proved reserves 量
量 Thousand million barrels (50 gallons/barrel) 例 年 Oil: Proved reserves at end 2009 Share of total R/P USA 28.4 2.1% 10.8 Canada 33.2 2.5% 28.3 Mexico 11.7 0.9% 10.8 Total North America 73.3 5.6% 16.0 2007~2008 年 量 1400 ; 量
Oil: Proved reserves at end 2009 Share of total R/P Argentina Brazil Colombia Ecuador Peru Trinidad & Tobago Venezuela 2.5 12.9 1.4 6.5 1.1 0.8 172.3 0.2% 1.0% 0.1% 0.5% 0.1% 0.1% 12.9% 10.2 17.4 5.4 36.1 21.1 15.1 * Other S. & Cent. America 1.4 0.1% 26.8 Total S. & Cent. America 198.9 14.9% 80.6
Proved reserves at end 2009 Share of total R/P Azerbaijan 7.0 0.5% 18.6 Denmark Italy Kazakhstan 0.9 0.9 39.8 0.1% 0.1% 3.0% 9.5 27.2 64.9 Norway Romania Russian Federation Turkmenistan United Kingdom Uzbekistan 7.1 0.5 74.2 0.6 3.1 0.6 0.5% 5.6% 0.2% 8.3 14.2 20.3 8.0 5.8 15.2 Other Europe & Eurasia 2.2 0.2% 14.9 Total Europe & Eurasia 136.9 10.3% 21.2
Proved reserves at end 2009 Share of total R/P Iran 137.6 10.3% 89.4 Iraq 115.0 8.6% * Kuwait 101.5 7.6% * Oman 5.6 0.4% 18.9 Qatar 26.8 2.0% 54.7 Saudi Arabia 264.3 19.8% 74.6 Syria 2.5 0.2% 18.2 United Arab Emirates 97.8 7.3% * Yemen 2.7 0.2% 24.5 Other Middle East 0.1 * 9.4 Total Middle East 754.2 56.6% 84.8
Proved reserves at end 2009 Share of total R/P Algeria 12.2 0.9% 18.5 Angola 13.5 1.0% 20.7 Chad 0.9 0.1% 20.9 Rep. of Congo (Brazzaville) 1.9 0.1% 19.4 Egypt 1.7 0.1% 16.2 Equatorial Guinea 4.4 0.3% 15.2 Gabon 3.7 0.3% 44.1 Libya 44.3 3.3% 73.4 Nigeria 37.2 2.8% 49.5 Sudan 6.7 0.5% 37.5 Tunisia 0.6 * 18.4 Other Africa 0.6 * 11 Total Africa 127.7 9.6% 36
Proved reserves at end 2009 Share of total R/P Australia Brunei China India Indonesia Malaysia Thailand Vietnam Other Asia Pacific 4.2 1.1 14.8 5.8 4.4 5.5 0.5 4.5 1.3 0.3% 0.1% 1.1% 0.4% 0.3% 0.4% 0.3% 0.1% 20.7 17.6 10.7 21.1 11.8 20.4 3.8 35.7 11.2 Total Asia Pacific 42.2 3.2% 14.4 TOTAL WORLD ( ) 1333.1 100.0% 45.7 年
Natural Gas: Proved reserves 量
Proved natural gas reserves at end 2009
Natural gas reserves-to-production (R/P) ratios
Natural gas consumption per capita
Proved reserves Trillion cubic metres (10 12 m 3 ) at end 2009 Share of total R/P USA 6.93 3.7% 11.7 Canada 1.75 0.9% 10.9 Mexico 0.48 0.3% 8.2 Total North America 9.16 4.9% 11.3
Proved reserves at end 2009 Share of total R/P Argentina 0.37 0.2% 9.1 Bolivia 0.71 0.4% 57.9 Brazil 0.36 0.2% 30.4 Colombia 0.12 0.1% 11.8 Peru 0.32 0.2% 91.3 Trinidad & Tobago 0.44 0.2% 10.7 Venezuela 5.67 3.0% * Other S. & Cent. America 0.07 19.7 Total S. & Cent. America 8.06 4.3% 53.2
Proved reserves at end 2009 Share of total R/P Azerbaijan Denmark Germany Italy Kazakhstan Netherlands Norway Poland Romania Russian Federation Turkmenistan Ukraine United Kingdom Uzbekistan Other Europe & Eurasia 1.31 0.06 0.08 0.06 1.82 1.09 2.05 0.11 0.63 44.38 8.1 0.98 0.29 1.68 0.44 0.7% 1.0% 0.6% 1.1% 0.1% 0.3% 23.7% 4.3% 0.5% 0.2% 0.9% 0.2% 88.8 7.6 6.4 8.6 56.6 17.3 19.8 26.6 57.9 84.1 * 51 4.9 26.1 46.6 Total Europe & Eurasia 63.09 33.7% 64.8
Proved reserves at end 2009 Share of total R/P Bahrain 0.09 6.7 Iran 29.61 15.8% * Iraq 3.17 1.7% * Kuwait 1.78 1.0% * Oman 0.98 0.5% 39.6 Qatar 25.37 13.5% * Saudi Arabia 7.92 4.2% * Syria 0.28 0.2% 48.9 United Arab Emirates 6.43 3.4% * Yemen 0.49 0.3% * Other Middle East 0.06 24.2 Total Middle East 76.18 40.6% *
Proved reserves at end 2009 Share of total R/P Australia Bangladesh Brunei China India Indonesia Malaysia Myanmar Pakistan Papua New Guinea Thailand Vietnam Other Asia Pacific 3.08 0.36 0.35 2.46 1.12 3.18 2.38 0.57 0.91 0.44 0.36 0.68 0.36 1.6% 0.2% 0.2% 1.3% 0.6% 1.7% 1.3% 0.3% 0.5% 0.2% 0.2% 0.4% 0.2% 72.7 18 30.7 28.8 28.4 44.3 38 49.4 23.9 * 11.6 85.2 20.9 Total Asia Pacific TOTAL WORLD 16.24 187.49 8.7% 100.0% 37 年 62.8
Coal: Proved Reserves at end 2009 量
Proved coal reserves at end 2009
Coal production Coal consumption
Million tonnes 年 Anthracite ( ) and bituminous Subbituminous and Lignite Total Share of Total R/P ratio USA 108950 129358 238308 28.9% 245 Canada 3471 3107 6578 0.8% 105 Mexico 860 351 1211 0.1% 109 Total North America 113281 132816 246097 29.8% 236
Anthracite and bituminous Subbituminous and Lignite Total Share of Total R/P ratio Colombia 6434 380 6814 0.9% 95 Venezuela 479-479 0.1% 96 Other S. & Cent. America 51 603 654 0.1% * Total S. & Cent. America 6964 8042 15006 1.8% 181
Total Share of Total R/P Bulgaria Czech Republic Germany Greece Hungary Kazakhstan Poland Romania Russian Federation Spain Turkey Ukraine UK Other Europe & Eurasia 1996 4501 6708 3900 3302 31300 7502 422 157010 530 1814 33873 155 19233 0.2% 0.5% 0.8% 0.5% 0.4% 3.8% 0.9% 0.1% 19% 0.1% 0.5% 4.1% 2.3% 74 84 37 62 367 308 56 14 * 52 22 460 9 293 Total Europe & Eurasia 272246 33% 236
Total Share of Total R/P South Africa 30408 3.7% 122 Zimbabwe 502 0.1% 301 Other Africa 1103 0.1% * Middle East 1386 0.2% * Total Africa & Middle East 33399 4.0% 131
Total Share of Total R/P Australia China India Indonesia Japan New Zealand North Korea Pakistan South Korea Thailand Vietnam Other Asia Pacific 76200 114500 58600 4328 355 571 600 2070 133 1354 150 391 9.2% 13.9% 7.1% 0.5% 0.1% 0.1% 0.3% 0.2% 186 38 105 17 277 125 16 * 53 72 3 19 Total Asia Pacific 259253 31.4% 59 TOTAL WORLD 826001 100.0% 119 年
Nuclear: Consumption 量
Nuclear energy consumption by region
1 ton oil ~ 8 barrels Million tonnes oil equivalent 2005 2009 of total USA 186.3 190.2 31.2% Canada 20.7 20.3 3.3% Mexico 2.4 2.2 0.4% Total North America 209.4 212.7 年 量 34.8% Argentina 1.6 1.8 0.3% Brazil 2.2 2.9 0.5% Chile - - - Total S. & Cent. America 3.8 4.7 0.8%
Million tonnes oil equivalent 2005 2009 of total Belgium & Luxembourg 10.8 10.7 1.87% Czech Republic 5.6 6.1 1.0% Finland 5.5 5.4 0.9% France 102.4 92.9 15.2% Germany 36.9 30.5 5.0% Russian Federation 33.4 37 6.1% Slovakia 4.0 3.2 0.5% Spain 13 12 2.0% Sweden 16.4 11.9 2.0% Switzerland 5.2 6.2 1.0% Ukraine 20.1 18.6 3.0% United Kingdom 18.5 15.7 2.6% Total Europe & Eurasia 285.5 285 43.4%
Million tonnes oil equivalent 2005 2009 of total Iran - - - Kuwait - - - Qatar - - - Saudi Arabia - - - United Arab Emirates - - - Other Middle East - - - Total Middle East - - - Algeria - - - Egypt - - - South Africa 2.9 2.7 0.4% Other Africa - - - Total Africa 2.9 2.7 0.4%
Million tonnes oil equivalent 2005 2009 of total Australia - - - China 12 15.9 2.6% India 4 3.8 0.6% Indonesia - - - Japan 66.3 62.1 10.2% Pakistan 0.6 0.6 0.1% Singapore - - - South Korea 33.2 33.4 5.5% Taiwan 9 9.4 1.5% Thailand - - - Other Asia Pacific - - - Total Asia Pacific 126.2 125.3 20.5% TOTAL WORLD 626.8 610.5 100.0%
量 (10 9 W) 數
3. Renewable Energy
(I) Hydroelectricity ( 力 )
Hydroelectricity
Hydroelectricity consumption by region
(II) Wind Energy ( )
Wind power generating capacity growth accelerated to 31% in 2009, with capacity increasing by a record 38 GW to reach 160 GW by the end of 2009. In 2009, China more than doubled installed wind capacity to 25.9 GW, overtaking Germany to take second place behind the USA in terms of cumulative installed capacity.
(i) Planetary Winds Planetary winds are caused by greater solar heating of the earth s surface near the equator ( ) than near the northern and southern poles ( 北 ). 流 流 北 北 流 北 流 ( 流 ) 流 北 北 流 流 ; 北 流 流
north west East south
(ii) Local Winds Local winds are caused by (1) differential heating of land and water 陸 冷 陸 流 陸 陸 冷 陸 流 (2) hills and mountain sides 流 冷 流
Skystream 3.7 Skystream 3.7 costs approximately $12,000 to $15,000 to purchase and install. Skystream 3.7 can pay for itself in as quickly as 5 years. Designed for very low winds, Skystream 3.7 begins producing power in an 8 mph (3.5 m/s) breeze with full output achieved at 23 mph (10.3 m/s). Skystream 3.7 can be mounted on a 35 foot (10.6 meters) tower.
Its full 1800 watts is achieved at 20 mph with a maximum rotor speed of 325 RPM. The sound pressure level generated by Skystream is in the range of 40-50 decibels ( ) which is quieter than background noise in ahome or office.
The NASA/DOE 7.5 megawatt Mod-2 three turbine cluster in Goodnoe Hills, Washington in 1981
5 MW Rotor diameter ( ) = 126.0 m
GE - 3.6 MW Series Wind Turbine Rotor Rated capacity Cut-in wind speed Cut-out wind speed Rated wind speed 3,600 kw 3.5 m/s 27 m/s 14 m/s Number of blades Rotor diameter Swept area Rotor speed (variable) 3 104 m 8,495 m 2 8.5-15.3 rpm
Annual average wind speed at hub height
Darrieus wind turbine "Eggbeater" turbines. They have good efficiency, but produce large torque ripple and cyclic stress on the tower, which contributes to poor reliability. Also, they generally require some external power source, or an additional Savonius rotor, to start turning, because the starting torque is very low. 30 m Darrieus wind turbine in the Magdalen Islands
Common modern wind turbines Usually three-bladed, sometimes two-bladed or even one-bladed (and counterbalanced), and pointed into the wind by computercontrolled motors. The rugged three-bladed turbine type has been championed by Danish turbine manufacturers. Wind turbines, Denmark. A standard doorway can be seen at the base of the pylon for scale The blades are usually colored light gray to blend in with the clouds and range in length from 20 to 40 metres (60 to 120 feet) or more.
Offshore wind farm off Danish coast ( 丹 )
E-40 力 (0.6 MW 量 ) (m/s) E-40 (m/s) 量 ( ) 0 不 0.3 0-0.3 0 1 0.3-1.5 0.3-1.5 0 2 1.6-3.3 1.5-2.5 (2.5 3) 0 (4.9) 3 3.4-5.4 4-5 (5-6) 42.1 (77.7) 4 5.5-7.9 6 7 (7-8) 126.5 (193.4) 5 8.0-10.7 8 9 (9-10) 278.7 (377.8) 6 10.8-13.8 10 11 484.6 (11-12,12-13) (550.5, 590.0) 7 13.9-17.1 13-16 605.0 8 17.2-20.7 16 19 605.0 9 烈 20.8-24.4 20 23 605.0 10 24.5-28.4 23 26 605.0
(III) Solar Energy ( )
Solar Radiation
輻 Q = G ir (A c ) = 1389 (W/m 2 ) x (πr earth2 ) = 1.76 x 10 17 (W) = 1.76 x 10 11 (MW)? : 量 = 1 x 10 3 ~ 1.5x10 3 (MW)
( ) (
( )
Solar PV Generation Capacity ( 量 )
(< 80 o C)
(> 100 o C)
(IV) Hydrogen Energy ( )
車 料 利 料 流 車 車 料 : 量?
What Is A Fuel Cell? In principle, a fuel cell operates like a battery. Unlike a battery, a fuel cell does not run down or require re-charging. It will produce energy in the form of electricity and heat as long as fuel is supplied.
TYPES OF FUEL CELLS (1) Phosphoric Acid (2) Proton Exchange Membrane or Solid Polymer (3) Molten Carbonate (4) Solid Oxide (5) Alkaline (6) Direct Methanol Fuel Cells (7) Regenerative Fuel Cells (8) Zinc Air Fuel Cells (9) Protonic Ceramic Fuel Cell
(PEM) 料
Anode ( ): H 2 (g) > 2H + (aq) + 2e - Cathode ( ): ½O 2 (g) + 2H + (aq) + 2e - > H 2 O(l)
Hydrogen Storage A gram of hydrogen gas occupies about 11 liters (2.9 gallons) of space at atmospheric pressure, so for convenience the gas must be intensely pressurized to several hundred atmospheres and stored in a pressure vessel. In liquid form, hydrogen can only be stored under cryogenic temperatures. These options are not practical for everyday use. The solution to these difficulties is storage of hydrogen in hydride form.
Some alloys store hydrogen at a higher density than pure hydrogen Material H-atoms per cm 3 (x 10 22 ) % of weight that is hydrogen H 2 gas, 200 bar (2850 psi) H 2 liquid, 20 K (-253 C) 0.99 4.2 100 100 H 2 solid, 4.2 K (-269 C) 5.3 100 MgH 2 6.5 7.6 Mg 2 NiH 4 5.9 3.6 FeTiH 2 6.0 1.89 LaNi 5 H 6 5.5 1.37
(V) Bio-Energy ( ) 利 料 車 (5%) 糧 (!)
Global Ethanol ( ) Production Global fuel ethanol production grew 8% to 38 million tonnes of oil equivalent (1.3 million barrels daily on a volumetric basis) in 2009
(VI) Geothermal energy ( ) Geothermal remained the slowest growing renewable energy in 2009. Geothermal capacity grew by 3.8% (397 MW) in 2009, to reach 10.7 GW. Geothermal power generation is a well established and relatively mature form of commercial renewable energy. One of its important characteristics is a high load factor, which means that each MW of capacity produces significantly more electricity during a year than a MW of wind or solar capacity.