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1 1980 (1) (2) (3)

3 50~60 ( ) 1

4 (Organic farming) (Sustainable agriculture) Liehardt Harwood(1980) (Natural farming) (Regenerative agriculture, or renewable agriculture) (1) (2) (3) (Biological agriculture) (Bio dynamic agriculture) 2

5 N 2 O N 2 O 3

6 Dr. Rudolf Steiner () Dr. Rudolf Steiner 4

7 Organic Food Production Act (National Organic ProgramProposed Rule MOA ()

8 6

9 /3 2%

11 77 9

12 () () (MOA) 10

13 COAA TOPA TOAF MOA TOPA TOAF ,089 11

14 12

15 13

16 14

17 15

18 16

19 ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) 17

20 ( )

21 2~ ( ) ,000~4,000 1/

22 1/4 1/ (ph ) (8%) 3. ( ) 120 1% 15% = N% (1- %)X2( 20

23 50%) =120 1% (1-15%)X2=28, % 12% = N% (1- %)X1.25( 80%) = % (1-12%)X1.25=3,216 1/2 1/4 1/

24 1215 (510 ) 4 ( )

25 ( 0.2 ) 23

26 (SiO 2 ) 15 /1000 ( ) % 50 24

27 16% % 25

28 () () 26

29 () () 27

30 () 28

31 () 29

32 () () () 30

33 1.As() < > 60 < > 60 2.Cd() < > 10 3.Cr() < > 16 4.Cu() < > Hg() < > 20 6.Ni() < > Pb() < > Zn() < > 80 31

34 32

35 33

36 34

37 35

38 36

39 ( )( 1986) 37

40 ( 1979) ; ( 1996) 38

41 39 ( 1994) ( )(Suzuki et al,1990) ( 1973) ( )( )

42 40

43 48 (1959) 1.25~2.5 10% 67~70 (1978~1981) 5,730 40ppm 45% 90ppm 70% 61 (1972) 66 (1977) 30~ % 66 (1977) 41

44 42 : ( ) Park(1988) 16 ( ) ( 15~20%) ( ) ( ) (60~70 ) ( )

45 ( ) 5.5 / 100 / 20~30 ( ) : 43

46 ph ph ( 1998) 44

47 (1994) (1998) : ,000 1/2 10 1/4 1/ ~10 6~8 (50%) ( 2002) ( ) ( 2002) 45

48 C/N ratio : 46

49 ( ) 47

50 48

51 - --- () () 49

52 () () ( ) () () ( ) 50

53 - ( ) () () 51

54 () () 52

55 - 1 53

56 (11)

57 - 55

58 56

59 - 57

60 58

61 : (1) : (1)(2) : (3) : (4) : 59

62 () : 1 : 2 : 60

63 3 ( ) : 1 : 5~15 2 : 1Ocm : a. 61

64 b. ( ) 200ppm 10,000ppm ms/cm 300~600 62

65 : () : () 63

66 () () ph ph ph 15~30 30~45 64

67 ph 30% ph % 3.0% 84% EC 1:5 1 ms/cm 31% EC ( 1:5) 6 EC EC (1:5)1 ms/cm EC 6 ms/cm EC (1:5) 1 ms/cm () 1 65

68 2 3 4 () 1 2 (water potential) 66

69 3 4 5 () (a) (b) (d) (e) 67

70 EC ( ) EC 0.4 ms/cm( 100 ppm) EC ms/cm 3/4 EC ms/cm 1/2 EC ms/cm 1/4 EC 0.1 ms/cm ( ) ( 3.0%) 68

71 (0-15 ) 69

72 70

73 71

74 20% 4~7% 0.6~2.0% 1.0~3.0% 0.5~4.0% ph

75 ph4.5 ph 73

76 74

77 75

78 76

79 ( ) Trichoderma spp. () () () De Waard

80 (De Waard, et al., 1993) Lumsdem,et al., 1998; (EPA) Biopesticides Pollution and Prevention Division, BPPD ( ) 78

81 ( ) (crop rotation) ( ) 1934 Weindling Rhizoctonia solani Fusarium oxysporum Fusarium solanifusarium colmorum Rhizoctonia solani Pythium spp., Phytophthora citrophthora Heterobasidium annosum; Armillaria mellea; Ceratocystis ulmi Chondrostereum purpureum Phellinus spp., 79

82 Sclerotium rolfsii Sclerotium cepivorum Sclertinia spp. Plasmodiophora brassica Meloidogyne spp., Botrytis spp. ( ) Collectotrichum spp (Lo,1998) Fusarium oxysporum Sclerotium rolfsii Monosporascus sp (Lo, et al., ) (cucumber green mottle mosaic virus) (Lo,1997) (1) (2) (3) Trichoderma harzianum strain T95 80

83 (rhizosphere competence) T. harzianum strain T12 Dr. Harman (cell fusion) T. harzianum strain 1295 (increasing level) (repeat sales) ( ( ) (infection court) Risheth Phlebia giganta (Heterobasidion annosum ) Kerr Agrobacterium radiobacter K84 (damping- off) Gliocladium ( Trichoderma) virens GL21 Trichoderma harzianum (rhizosphere) () ( ( ) 81

84 (Plant growth promoting rhizobacteria) Pseudomonas aurreofaciens AB254 (Pseudomonas fluorescens biovar. V) (Pythium seed rot) CFU Pseudomonas fluorescens strain 2-27 Gaeumannomyces graminis var. tritici (wheat take-all disease) (seminal) (crown root) (subcrown internodes) Gaeumannomyces graminis var. tritici ( ) (atoxigenic)aspergillus flavus AF36 Aspergillus flavus AF36 (florial parts) Aspergillus flavus Sporidesmium sclerotivorum ( Sclerotinia minor ) Tichoderma spp ( ) Fusarium spp Phytophthora sp Puccinia canaliculata Collectotrichum spp 82

85 iability (vigor) 12~18

86 ( ) () phyllosphere Botrytis cinerea T. harzianum () soil soil borne diseases (A) (B) granules broadcast application in furrow treatments planting soil amendment (C) Trichoderma-carrying cover crops () Post-harvest disease (Mycocentrospora acerina Rhizoctonia carotae ) Phlyct (Rhizoctonia solani) bentgrass ( ) (T. harzianum strain 1295) 84

87 (green) (2~3 /) (primary inoculum) : (1): (3)9-12. Hall, F. R., and Menn, J. J Biopesticides: Use and Delivery. 85

88 Humanna Press Inc., Totowa, NJ, USA. Jin, X., Hayes, C. K., and Harman, G. E Principles in the development of biological control systems employing Trichoderma species against soil-borne plant pathogenic fungi. Pages in: Frontiers in Industrial Mycology. G. C., Leatham. ed., Chapma and Hall, Inc., Lodon. Lewis, J. A., Fravel, D. R., Lumsden, R. D., and Shasha, B. S Application of biocontrol fungi in granular formulations of pregelatinized sarch-flour to control damping-off diseases caused by Rhizoctonia solani. Biological control 5: Lo, C. T., Nelson, E. B., and Harman, G. E Biological control of turfgrass diseases with a rhizosphere competent strain of Trichoderma harzianum. Plant Dis. 80: Papavizas, G.C Biological control of selected soilborne plant pathogens with Gliocladium and Trichoderma. Pages in: Biological Control of Plant Diseases: Progress and Challenges for the Future..C. Tjamos, G. C. Papavizas, and R. J. Cook, eds., Plenum Press, New York. Van Driesche, R. G., and Bellows, Jr., T. S Biological Control. Champan & Hall, New York, USA. 86

89 Trichoderma spp and Plant Disease Management Lo, Chaur-Tsuen (Taiwan Agriculture Research Institute, Wufeng, Taichung) Abstract Biological control will be an alternative strategy for the control of plant pests given the history of pesticides on developed country in the twenty one century because biopesticides are thought as the natural organisms that are less toxic and pollution than chemical pesticides for the globe ecology. For disease management, Trichoderma spp was usually applied as an important role among biocontrol agents of plant diseases. So far, the biopesticides may mainly include biofungicides, bioinsectcides, and bioherbcides. Generally, the basic requirements of a successful system of biological control of plant pests are (a) an effective biocontrol agent, (b) production and formulation methods that give rise to high yields of biomass consisting of appropriate efficacious propagules of high viability and stability, and (c) delivery systems that provide a conducive milieu and minimize growth of competitive microflora. In addition, the processes of the biopesticides for commercially available still need to complete the field tests, and to pass toxicity tests, and registration by Environmental Protection Agency and Council of Agriculture of Taiwan. 87

90 88

91 (integrated pest control) (integrated pest management) 89

92 90

93 91

94 92

95 1 93

96 94

97 2 95

98 96

99 10-90% (allelopathy) 97

100 (pest) (Chenopodium ficifolium) (Polygonum lapathifolium) (Cardamine parviflora) (Echinochloa crus-galli) (Scirpus juncoides) (Cyperus difformis) (Monochoria vaginalis) (Sagittaria trifolia) (Ammannia baccifera) (Lindernia pyxidaria) (Rotala indica) (Sphenochloa zeylanica) (Scirpus planiculmis) (Lemna paucicostata) (Salvinia natans) (Azolla pinnata) (Echinochloa colona) (Leptochloa chinensis) (Paspalum distichum) 98

101 (Cyperus iria) (Lindernia ciliata) (Alternanthera sessilis) (Sagittaria pygmea) (1983) (Eleusine indica) (Digitaria sanguinalis) (Amaranthus viridis) (Erigeron canadensis) (Portulaca oleracea) (Stellaria aquatica) (Poa annua) (Senecio vulgaris) (Sonchus oleraceus) (Erigeron sumtrensis ) (Solanm nigrum) (Bromus catharticus) (Malva neglecta) (Erechtites valerianafolia) (Gnaphalium purpureum) (Hemistepta lyrata) (Polygonum 99

102 plebeium) (Rorippa atrovirens) (Fimbristylis miliacea) (Alternanthera sessilis) (Cyperus rotundus) (biotype) (paraquat) 100

103 (pest) (soil seed bank) 43 2,4-D % (glyphosate) 101

104 1-2 (butachlor) (bentazon) (sulfonylureas) (pyrazosulfuron) (bensulfuron) (imazosulfuron)

105 103

106 104

107 105

108

109

110

111 N % P 2 O 5 % K 2 O% %

112 SanEmigdio Castellanos and Pratt

113 8 111

114 1,5,8 5 7,

115 1 1,7,8,11 4,6,9,10,13, ,13 (lignin/n) 6,9 ((lignin+polyphenol)/n) 113

116 % 1.5%

117 115

118 116

119 (1)(2) ( 30)593 (3) (4) (3) 117

120 ( ) ( 15 ) (6399kg/ha) (5978kg/ha) 7 (16.7 o Brix) (15.9 o Brix) 0.8 o Brix (5) ( 10kg) ( 30 ) 13 (6) o Brix (7) 1.3 o Brix (8) (40 //) 5.44 / 4.05 / 34 (9) o Brix( 14.3 o Brix) (30-60 ) 1 (10) ( ) (mineralization) ph ( ) ph (9) 118

121 (30-60 ) ph (10) (mineralization) (lignin) ( ) (30-60) ( ) 1030% (11) % (1015) (8550%) % 80% (810) 119

122 100% % 100% (11) % ( ) %

123 % % 121

124 ( ) () % (5 ) (12) (4-6 ) 122

125 N P 2 O 5 K 2 O 120 / / / / / / / / / / / / / / / / / /

126 (1), (2) (1) ( ) (2)

127 250~300 / 2% /212, ~

128 C/N C/N ; ( ); ; ( ) l

129 l : ; ; ( ) 127

130 2-3 : (ph 5) ph

131

132 130

133 ( ) A 23 EC EC 131

134 Hunt et al, 1973) Pseudomonas spp. Erwinia carotovora (Hoitink, 1980Lumsden et al., 1983Hoitink and Fahy, 1986Hadar and Mandelbaum) (compost tea) (emerging technology) 132

135 (phyllosphere) (Bacillus and Pseudomonas) (Sporobolomyces and Cryptococcus) (Trichoderma) (Penicillium) (Cronin,1996) (apple scab) (bioassay) (Trankner, 1992) ( ) (Stindt and Weltzien, 1988) 133

136 (Samerski and Weltzien, 1988) (Erysiphe graminis) Ingham and Alms, 1999 Ingham and Alms,1999 Weltzein 134

137 1989 Yahalem et al.1994 scab Pseudopeziza fracheiphila Ketterer and Weltzien,1987 Kai et al CuZn Fe 135

138 A CH Tween 22 A 23 B 0.5 Tween A B 136

139 137 EC EC 1 2 EC 9-12 (Dittmer,1990) 7 (Dittmer,1991Trankner, 1995)

140 138

141 8.Hashimoto H. Theory and Application of Orgaic Soil Amendment, p. 9.Hoitink H. A. J. and P. C. Fahy Basis of the control of soilborne plant pathogens with composts. Annual Review of Phytopathology Matsuguchi T. and T. Nitta Effects of organic amendments upland crops. Japanese Journal of Soil Science and Plant Nutrition Papavizas G. C. and C. B. Davey 139

142 Hoitink H.A., A.G. Stone, D.Y. Han 1997 Suppression of plant diseases by composts. HortScience 32(2):

143 ( ) : :

144 : 142

145 143

146 ( ) 120 / 60 / 60 / 60 / 144

147 1/3 1/ / 6.93 / / ( 90 /

148 ) y 146

149 147

150 148

151 C/N ratio 149

152 150

153 ~10% 10 1% 151

154 10 25% ~30% (Porto) 21 30% IFOAM 152

155 153

156 (IFOAM) 154

157 1990 EEC 2092/91 (FAO/WHO) 1999 IFOAM GMO 155

158 156

159 157

160 158

161 ph 159

162 60~70% ( ) 160

163 Bob Montana 300 Montana Kamut 65% 2% 5% WTO

164 162

165 % 163

166 (1) (2) (1) (2) (3) 164

167 (4) 165

168 166

169 WTO

170 MOA Australian Quarantine and Inspection service National Standard for Organic and Bio-Dynamic Produce. Organic produce Advisory committee. Caroline Hattam Organic Agriculture and Sustainable 168

171 Agriculture and Rural Development. Conklin. N. and Thompson. G Product quality in organic and conventional produce: is there a difference? Agribusiness: 9; 3; FAO Food Safety and Quality as Affected by Organic Farming. FAO-Twenty Second FAO Regional Conference for Europe. FAO Requirements for Producing and Exporting Organic Products to Major Markets. FAO New and Emerging Issues Affecting Commodity Markets. FAO-Sixty-third Session of the Committee on commodity Problems. FAO Requirements for Producing and Exporting Organic Products to Major Markets. In FAO/ITC/CTA (ed.) World Markets for Organic Fruit and Vegetables Opportunities for Developing Countries in the Production and Export of Organic Horticultural Products. Fischler. F Organic Farming and the new Common Agricultural Policy. Proceedings of Organic Farming in the European Union-Perspectives for the 21 st Century May Baden. Austria. Fred P. Miller Sustainable agriculture: What does it mean-where is it going in the U.S.? IFOAM Statistics of Central and Eastern Europe. ITC Product and Market Development. Organic Food and Beverages. World Supply and Major European Markets. Geneva. Lampkin. N Organic farming in the European Union-overview. policies and perspectives. Proceedings of Organic Farming in the European Union-Perspectives for the 21 st Century May Baden. Austria. Nadia Scialabba Opportunities and Constraints of Organic 169

172 Agriculture A Socio-Ecological Analysis. Nadia Scialabba Organic Agriculture Perspectives. Raupp. J. (ed) Quality of plant products grown with manure fertilization. Fertilization systems in organic farming (concerted action AIR3-CT4-1940) Proceedings of the 4 th meeting in Juva. Finland. July 6-9. Publications of the Institute for Biodynamic Research. Vol. 9. Darmstadt. UNDP Changing consumption and production patterns: Organic agriculture. Commission on Sustainable Development: 8 th Session. 24 April 5 May New York. 170

173 171

174 phytotoxic substances (microbial toxins) Rice Martin1962 Table 1. Plant allelopathy arisen from unfit crop sequence 172

175 specific host-parasite relationship sensitivity resistance Fusarium Pythium RhizoctoniaActinomycesPhytophthora spp. nematodes cyst nematode 16 Rhizotonia Pythium 173

176 ( ) ( ) Rhizotonia Pythium 174

177 , nitrogen fixation 175

178 1957 Table 3. Effects of nutrient uptake of previous crops on the yields of subsequent crops 1997~ % 21~52% 2% 100% 11~22% 5% 100% 1~26% 176

179 Table 4. Effects of previous crops on the yield of next crops ( ) 177

180 * Table 5. Effects of previous leaf vegetable crops on the growth of next crops O O O O O r r O O O O O ro O r O r r O ro O r O O O O O r C/N ratio cellulose lignin 178 r

181 nitrogen immobilization Table 6. C:N ratio in biamass and air-weight in root system of legume and cereal crops 179

182 (growth-promoting substances) ~30% 15% 7~35%

183 181

184 ( 1993) 8 ( 1997) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) 182

185 ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) 183

186 184

187 .. 185

188 186 ( )

189 ( ) 187

多樣化的植物病害—談微生物惹禍的技藝

多樣化的植物病害—談微生物惹禍的技藝 1 2 1 [email protected] 2 Lethbridge ) ( ) (plant disease) (symptoms) (signs) (continuous (fungi) irritant) (bacteria) (virus) (nematodes) (phytoplasma) (discontinuous irritant) (injury) (