75 i

Transcription

1

2 75 i

3 ii

4 (2001 ) ( (Yucca Mountain) (pebble bed reactor, PBR) iii

5 ( ) 95 (2006)5 1 iv

6 ... i...iii... v v

7 vi

8 vii

9 A A A A A viii

10 1.1 (ionizing radiation) ( x γ ) ( α β ) x ( x ) ( 1.2) x ( 1.2) ( ) (radioactivity) ( ) ( ) 1.2 (quantity) (unit) (Wilhelm Konrad Röntgen, )( 1.1) (Würzburg) 1.1 1

11 (Hittorf-Crookes) 1 x () x 1901 x x x (R) (exposure) (x γ R = C/kg 1 C/kg 3876R (Antoine Henri Becquerel, )( 1.2) 1. W. Hittorf ( )W. Crookes ( ) 2

12 1.2 x x x 1903 (Bq) (activity) ( 1 ) (decay) = 1 Ci 1 Ci = Bq 1 Bq Ci (Marie Curie, ) (Pierre Curie, ) ( 1.3)

13 (Ci) (Louis Harold Gray, ) (William Henry Bragg, )

14 (Gy) (absorbed dose) 1 1 (J) 1 1 Gy = 1 J/kg 1 Gy = 100 rad (rad) (Rolf Maximillian Sievert, )( 1.5) (Sv) ( ) 5

15 1 Sv = 1 J/kg 1 Sv = 100 rem (rem) ( ) (310-2 ) 10,000 (2 ) ( ) %

16 1.1 ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( 1000)

17 ( ) % % % % %

18 40 14 (United Nations Scientific Committee on the Effect of Atomic Radiation, UNSCEAR) ( naturally occurring radioactive material, NORM) (technologically enhanced NORM, TENORM) (TiO 2 ) 1.4 ( )

19 1.5 ( ) 100 Ramsar 30 Mombasa 12 Kerala Espirio Santo Minas Gerais (1993) ( 1.3) ( 1.2) %

20 x (computed tomography, CT) (Windscale) (Three Mile Island) (Chernobyl) 11

21 (Bikini Atoll) (National Council on Radiation Protection and Measurements

22 NCRP) 1.5 ( ) (1) (2) 150 (3) (1) 6 (2) 50 (3) 150 3/10 4. (1) 1 (2)

23 (3) 50 1/ (converter) 1.8 (α) (β) (γ)x x (pair production) ( )

24 (1) (2) (3)(4) (5) ( ) ( ) V C R Q (recombination region) 10 6 Q/C 10 4 α I II III IV V VI 10 2 β 1 0 V 1 V 2 V 3 V 4 V

25 12.8 (ionization chamber) (ion 1896 (J. J. Thomson, ) (E. Rutherford, ) 1.10 (proportional region) 1901 (S. E. Townsend, ) 1908 (Hans Geiger) (Otto Klemperer) Geiger - (space charge) (limited proportional region) (Geiger-Müller region) 1928 (Walter Müller) GM 16

26 (Bell) (Kenneth Mckay) (diffused p-n junction detector) (silicon surface barrier detector) (lithium drifted detector) () [Ge (Li) detector] () [Si (Li) detector] x (HPGe) () (depletion region) p 5A n-p n p 1903 (William Crookes) (ZnS) 226 (Julius Elster) (Hans Geitel)

27 x (photographic emulsions) (1909 ) (Rome Wagner) ( ) (AgBr) (Ag + ) (Br - ) 18

28 x ( ) (thermoluminescence dosimeter, TLD) LiFMg,TiCaF 2 MnCaSO 4 DyLi 2 B 4 O 7 Mn MgTiMnDy (activator) 1960 (Farington Daniels)1953 ( 1.13) 1.14 (glow curve) 19

29 7 LiF 6 Li 10 2 B 4 O 7 6 Li 10 B LiF 6 LiF 7 LiF x 6 LiF 7 LiF (moderate) 6 LiF 7 LiF (albedo neutron dosimeter) 1.13 ~ ~ ~280 6 () 1.14TLD-LiF (TLD-100) 20

30 (superheated drop detector, SDD) (bubble chamber) 1.15 ( ) (Robert Apfel)1979 ( ) (GE) (Harry Marvin) 1954 (electret) 1.16 ( x) 21

31 (International Commission on Radiation Units and Measurements, ICRU)

32 1. G. F. Knoll, Radiation Detection and Measurement, John Wiley & Sons, 3rd ed., New York (2000) 2. (2003) 3. (2003) 4. (2003) 5. (2004) 6. (2006) 23

33 24

34 (2003 )8 (prolonged exposure) 1 (International Commission on Radiological Protection, ICRP)82 (ICRP ) ICRP-60 (1991 ) 2.2 ICRP (dosimetry) 1. A 2 (s -1 ) (Bq) 2. ICRP ICRP (1) D T (J kg -1 ) (Gy) 1. (chronic exposure) 2. 25

35 (2) - - H T (equivalent dose) (radiation weighting factor, W R ) W R ( MeV) (1) 2.1 (2) W R 1 µ (3) 1 (4) <10 (kev) 5 10 (kev)100 (kev) 10 >100 (kev)2 (MeV) 20 >2 (MeV)20 (MeV) 10 >20 (MeV) 5 ( ) >2 (MeV) 5 α 20 (1) (2) (3) (deoxyribonucleic acid, DNA) (Auger electrons) 3 (4) (Pierre V. Auger) 1899 x x

36 (Sv) ICRP 2005 (dose equivalent) (radiation weighted dose) µ µ (mu meson) (muon) 207 ( ) µ (lepton) 2 (3) E (effective dose) (tissue weighting factor, W T ) W T H T 2.2 (1) 2.2 W T W T (2)(3) 0.05 (1) (2) (selectively irradiated) 27

37 (3) (msv) A (Bq) D T (Gy) H T (Sv) E (Sv) W R W T 2.2 A D T H T E (collective dose) (annual) (additional) (averted) (avertable) (projected) (residual) (committed) (commitment) (lifetime) 1. H T (τ) τ () τ E(τ) ICRP 28

38 2. (dose commitment) (critical group) ( ) 3. S T S (1) 1 (2) ( ) (msv/a) a = annum y = year 2. (operational quantity) 29

39 ( ) (ICRU) ICRU [ambient dose equivalent, H * (d)] [directional dose equivalent, H'(d, Ω ) ] [personal dose equivalent, Hp(d)] d p (personal) (1) (2) ICRP 1. ICRU P (The field at point P) P (The expanded field) (2.3) 2. ICRU

40 (2.4) (The expanded and aligned field) 3 1. ICRU H * (d) 2.4 (2.4)ICRU 4 d d 10 mm d 0.07 mm d 3 mm (2.5) d H*(10) d H'(0.07, Ω) Ω ICRU H (d,) ICRU d d 10 mm d 0.07 mm d 3 (2.5) 3. ICRU d H p (d) d 4. ICRU 76.2% 11.1% 10.1% 2.6% 31

41 10 mm d 0.07 mm d 3 mm (existing dose) ( ) 2.6 NORM: naturally occurring radioactive material (2.6) (1) (2) (3) (4) NORM 32

42 (marginal dose) 2. (2.7) 2.7 ( ) 3. ( ) ICRP 4. [ ] E( ) (projected dose) ( ) (residual dose) 1 33

43 (averted dose) (avertable dose) 34

44 1. International Commission on Radiological Protection, 1990 Recommendations of the International Commission on Radiological Protection, ICRP Publication 60, Annals of the ICRP 21 (1-3), 1 (1991) 2. International Commission on Radiological Protection, Protection from Potential Exposure: A Conceptual Framework, ICRP Publication 64, Annals of the ICRP 23 (1), 1 (1993) 3. International Commission on Radiological Protection, Protection from Potential Exposures: Application to Selected Radiation Sources, ICRP Publication 76, Annals of the ICRP 27 (2), 1 (1997) 4. International Commission on Radiological Protection, Protection of the Public in Situations of Prolonged Radiation Exposure, ICRP Publication 82, Annals of the ICRP 29 (1/2), 1 (1999) 5. (2003) 35

45 36

46 3.1 (deterministic effect) (stochastic effect) (non-stochastic effect) (as low as reasonably achievable, ALARA) (free radical) ( ) (H 2 O) H 2 OH 2 O * H OH H OH H 2 O *

47 e - P + DNA 2 nm ( 4 nm DNA) 3.1 x DNA DNA DNA ICRP P + e - 38

48 3.3 (clone) ICRP 3.2 ( ) ( ) ( )

49 3.4 ( 3.5) (hormesis) (end point) ICRP ( ) () [ ] 0.5 Gy 0.4 Gya -1 2 Gya Gya -1 ( ) 0.15 Gya Gya -1 ICRP 40

50 (W R ) msv 2. ( 3.3) (B) (A) ( ) 3.3 (A) (B) [linear quadratic (LQ) model] E=αDβD 2 E D α β ICRP ( ) ICRP ICRP (detriment) (risk) ICRP ICRP ICRP 41

51 ICRP msv -1 ICRP ICRP 3.1ICRP 3.1 (10-5 msv -1 ) ( 4-14 ) Gy 3 ICRP (intelligence quotient, IQ) IQ ICRP IQ 100 msv IQ 3 IQ IQ IQ IQ ICRP 100 msv (1) 100 msv 3 ( ) 42

52 (2) 100 msv 100 msv (3) msv 100 msv (4) 43

53 1. L. A. Sagan, Special Issue on Radiation Hormesis, Health Phys. 52, 517 (1987) 2. Biological Effects of Ionizing Radiation Committee, The Health Effects of Exposure to Low Levels of Ionizing Radiation, BEIR V, National Academy of Sciences, Washington D.C. (1990) 3. ICRP-84 (2002) 4. 4 (2003) 5. (2004) 44

54 4.1 ( ) 44 (1955 ) ( ) ( )

55 (2 ) (1980) ( ) 70 46

56 ( )

57 ( )

58

59 1. (1) (2) (3) (4) 2. (1) (2) (3) (4) 3. (1) (2) (3) (4) (5) (6) (7) 4.4 ( ) 17 50

60

61

62

63

64 1. (1997) 2. (2001) 3. (2002) 4. (2003) 5. (2003) 55

65 56

66 5.1 ( ) 60 (1971 ) (1) (2) (3) (4) ( ) (1) (2) (1) 57

67 100 (2) 5 () 5 (3) (4) (5)

68 (8.4)

69 5.3 ( ) (Ebasco) (Becthel) ( ) (5.3) (5.4)

70 1. (1) 100 (2) (3) 20% 25% 25% ( )60 ppm 500 ppm ( 60 ppm 220 ppm) RWE NUKEM ( ) 40 (Belgonucleaire) Fontijne Grotnes B.V

71 (1) a. b c d. (polyethylene, PE) 19% PE 25% 62

72 PE 50% 85 1 PE 50% 1 e. 1) 15 ( ) ) 90 3 (de novo) (memory effect) (2) a. ( 0.5 msv/h) 1. (dioxin)

73 2 msv b. 2/5 1/3 c (Boiling Water Reactor, BWR)BWR

74 1. ( ) ( ) ( ) (curing) ( ) ( ) ( 65

75 ( ) ( ) (1 ) (1) a. b. 66

76 4. ( ) 5. (1) <1.66 Bq/100 cm 2 (2) <8.33 Bq/100 cm 2 (3) 2 msv/h msv/h (4) 200 msv (5) 0.02 msv/h msv/h msv/h () 2 msv/h () 20 msv/h 0.05 msv/h () 2mSv/h 0.05 msv/h 1/

77 2. (1) a. b. c. d. (2) a. ( ) b. c. d. e. f. (3) a. b. c. d. (4) (TOC) (ph) (SiO 2 )

78 5.1 (µs/cm) (ppb) 2 (ppb) (ppb) 3 (ppb) ~8 (NTU) (Bq/m 3 ) ppb ppb µs/cm 1. ( ) µs/cm S = siemens ( )1S/cm = 1 mho/cm 2. ppb = part per billion = ph 5. ph = - logh + 6. NTU = nephelometric turbidity unit nephelometry 3. (1) (2) (3) (4) (5) (6) (1 ) (7) (8) (9) ( ) 69

79 (10) 4. (1) (77) / 0.1 (2) 8 ( ) (0.1 ) ( ) (2.5 ) SJAE (1) a. (SJAE off gas) 2 b. (gland seal off gas) c. 2. SJAE = steam jet air ejector 70

80 d. (purge) e. (2) a. (hold up) b. c. (3) a. b. c. d. e. 3. (1) a. 30 b. 0.3 (HEPA filter) c

81 d /(CFM) (off gas tunnel) (2) (Xe) (Kr) a. 4 b. 4(1 7) c % d. (guard bed) 91 (purge) e (Xe) (Kr) f % 72

82 g (77) 2428 (1) (2) ( 8 ) 0.15 (3) ( ) Bq Bq Bq Bq Bq Bq Bq 0.1 msv 0.2 mgy 0.4 mgy Bq 0.3 msv Bq 0.3 msv 73

83 (1) 131 I βγ 140 Ba- 140 La (2) α (3) 20% (4) 131( 131 I) 133( 133 I) 135( 135 I) 89( 89 Sr) 90( 90 Sr) 55( 55 Fe) (5.5)

84 貮 (1) 75

85 (2) (3) (4) 2. (batch) (1) <70 µs/cm ( ) (2) >70 µs/cm ( ) ( (1) ) (3) ( ) (4) ( 44,000 ) 3 (surge tank; 44,000 ) =

86 4. (<0.37 Bq/cm 3 ) 5. (radwaste settling tank) (BWR) (SJAE off gas) (gland seal off (purge) 2. (SJAE off gas) (1) 4%( ) 4% (2) (3) 177 (4) ( 425) ( ) 10 (Kr) (Xe) 13 N 16 N 19 O (5) ( ) (glycol) 7.2 (6) 77

87 (7) (8) (9) (1) ( 80 ) (2) (3) (vapor body) 25-35% (2)(3) 55 (1) (1) (2)

88 (1) 1) 2) (2) ( ) 5. 79

89

90 5.6 (Pressurized Water Reactor, PWR) (gaseous radwaste system, GRS) (liquid radwaste system, LRS) (boron recycle system, BRS) (radioactive laundry system) (solid radwaste system) (VCT) (Kr) (Xe) (I) (VCT) (EDT) (RCDT) (BRS) (LRS) 154 ft 3 ( 5%) 1 ft ft 3 (40 m 3 ) 100% (I) (Xe) 81

91 ( ) (hold up tank) 3 33,709 (sump) (chemical drain tank) 2 2, (condensate recovery tank) >25% (subcooler) 120 (condenser vent gas cooler) 82

92 (floor drain waste) (reactor coolant feed) (gas stripper) (GRS) (BRS) (CVCS) (BTRS) (RCDT) (EDT) (GRS header drain tank) 1% H-OH 1% 5 98% 84,000 83

93 15 /(gpm) 4% ( ppm) (BAT) (OH ) (30 ft 3 ) (sump) 3.8 ( 10 ) ,336 84

94 (resin transfer system) (sluice pump) 2. ( 20,000 ppm) (radwaste solidification system) (portland cement) (slaked lime) 55 ( ) 85

95 55 (waste feed tank) (waste feeder pump) (cement storage bin) (lime feeder) (mixer) (bridge crane) (cement feeder) 3. (dry active waste) (dry waste compactor)

96 (6.3) ppm 3 kg/cm ppm

97 (30 ) ( 30 / )

98 5.10 ( ) (advanced boiling water reactor, ABWR) (2005)

99 <50 µs/cm ( ) 2. >50 µs/cm ( ) 3. ( ) m m m

100 (TOC) ( ) (wt%) 2. 2 <1 wt% kw 100 kg

101 ( <5%) / ( ) (Xe) %

102 155 ( ) ( 7.2 ) (Xe) (214 ) (Xe) 60 EOF

103 (5.12) (5 ) (2 5 ) 94

104 ,000 5, , (2000 ) (EPRI)

105 ( )

106 ( 5 )

107 (2004 ) (55 ) (2 4 8 )

108 , , ,656 31, (20 ) (20 ) ,

109 ~

110 ,

111

112 (process control plan, PCP)

113 ( )

114 (200 / )

115 []1 = 1,000 = 1 3 / (polyethylene, PE) (polypropylene, PP) 40 / / 106

116 (NO x ) (HEPA) (DeNO x % (5.13)

117 67 93 ( ) 67 2 (67) ( 60 ) (76)

118 ( ) ( ) 5.14 ( ) ( ) ( ) ( )

119 ( 300 ) ( )

120 1. (1993) 2. International Atomic Energy Agency, Shallow Ground Disposal of Radioactive Waste: A Guidebook, IAEA Safety Series No. 53, Vienna (1981) 3. International Atomic Energy Agency, Safety Analysis Methodologies for Radioactive Waste Repository in Shallow Ground, IAEA Safety Series No. 64, Vienna (1984) 4. International Atomic Energy Agency, Design, Construction, Operation, Shutdown and Surveillance of Repositories for Solid Waste in Shallow Ground, IAEA Safety Series No. 63, Vienna (1984) 5. International Atomic Energy Agency, Treatment of Low- and Intermediate- Level Liquid Radwaste, IAEA Technical Report Series No. 236, Vienna (1984) 6. International Atomic Energy Agency, Operational Experience in Shallow Ground Disposal of Radioactive Waste, IAEA Technical Report Series No. 253, Vienna (1985) 7. International Atomic Energy Agency, Survey of Experience with Dry Storage of Spent Nuclear Fuel and Update of Wet Storage Experience, IAEA Technical Report Series No. 290, Vienna (1988) 8. International Atomic Energy Agency, Nuclear Fuel Cycle in the 1990s and Beyond the Century: Some Trends and Forseeable Problems, IAEA Technical Report Series No. 305, Vienna (1989) 9. International Atomic Energy Agency, Treatment of Off-gas from Radioactive Waste Incinerator, IAEA Technical Report Series No. 302, Vienna (1989) 10. International Atomic Energy Agency, Evaluation of Spent Fuel as a Final Waste Form, IAEA Technical Report Series No. 320, Vienna (1991) 111

121 112

122 (1) (2) (3) 90% 10% 113

123 (multi-barrier system) (monolithic) (1) (2) (3) 6.1 (BWR) (PWR) 114

124 (Pressurized Water Reactor, PWR) PWRHEST (PWR high efficiency solidification technology) (Boiling Water Reactor, BWR) BWR (BWRHEST) (wet oxidation) WOHEST 6.2 PWR (PWRHEST) BWR (BWRHEST) 6.2 (WOHEST) 115

125 15 PWRHEST (Grand Prize) PWRHEST (Hitachi Ltd.) (Framatome ANP) PWRHEST (Japan Atomic Power Company, JAPCO) BWR 俥 BWR

126 (Idaho) (1) 5-10 kg/h (2) % 99.9% (3) 6.4 (plasma) 10,

127 1,400-1, (20 ) (3,000 ) , DC/RF / ( 4003,000 kg/cm 2 815) ( >15 kg/cm 2 >6) (INER-1200T) (INER-PF250) (6 ) (INER-PF250R)

128 100% ,0002, ,000 1/51/ / ,000 / 70 / 119

129 µm 99.97% 82 (1993 ) (1) (2) (3) (4) (5) () 90% 87% 3. (6.4) / ( ) ( ) 120

130 137 Cs (separation factor, SF) / Cs Sr ( )

131 2. 40,000 / (1) (1,500 /) (2) (3) 28,500 / /

132 ( 137 Cs) 50 99% Bq/g (0.3 Bq/g) (transuranic elements, TRU) ( ) ,200 2,000 5, ( )

133 55 6, %

134 ( ) (deep geologic disposal) (multi-barrier system)

135 / / 87 (87) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( )

136 - ( ) (1) (2) (3)

137 80 87 / 90 /

138 6.3 ( )

139 6.3 ( ) () ( 90-94) ( ) ( 6.2) ( 6.2 ) 130

140 (1) 79 9 a. b. c. d

141 e. (1000 MWe) 250 f. g. h. i. (2) a. b. 1) 2) 3) 4) ISO ) 6) 7) 132

142 8) 9) 10) 11) 12) c. d. (3)

143 1. 122( ) ( ) (1998) (1999) 8. (2005) 134

144 7.1 (Hanford) (Columbia) 239( 239 Pu) (Alamogordo) (Rochester) (Eastman Kodak) 1950 (Nevada) 7.2 (ambient) (personal) 7.1 (1) ( 9) 135

145 (2) (3) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( 9) 136

146 (1) (2) (3) (4) (5) (6) (7) ( ) 137

147 ( ) (1) (2) (3) (4) (5) (6) (7) (8) (9) (10) (11)

148 ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( 40) ( ) 3. ( 40) 4. ( ) 7.2 (UNSCEAR)

149 7.2 (msv) (msv) a γ b ( ) c d a. b. c. d (Chernobyl) % 89( 89 Sr) 90( 90 Sr) 131( 131 I) 137( 137 Cs) (Herbert M. Parker, )( 7.5)

150 ( 131 I) 7.6 a-f (1) (2) 131( 131 I) 7.6a 7.6b 7.6c7.6d 7.6e 7.6f 141

151

152

153 (1) (Irish Sea) (2) (3) (tumbleweed)

154 3. () 2001 (Multi-Agency Radiation Survey and Site Investigation Manual, MARSSIM) ()

155 , , , , , , ,90 2 ( ) 2 89, , , ,90 3. (SS502) 7.6 ( ) ( )89,90 89,90 146

156 7.7 2 (Bq/L) (mbq/m 3 ) (Bq/kg-wet) (Bq/kg-wet) (Bq/L) (Bq/kg-dry) (20) (20) (µsv/h) () 7.7 ( )

157 (TLD) (RPL) (OSL) ( 134 Cs) 137( 137 Cs) ( 133 Cs) Cs + n 134 Cs (cost-effective) 7.9 (stakeholders) 7.9 WIPP (Carlsbad) 148

158 (LLD) ( ) 2. (vector) ( )

159 (Waste Isolation Pilot Plant, WIPP) (655 ) (averted) (ALARA) tradable emission permits 150

160 x () x ICRP 囱

161 MARSSIM γ β γ γ γ 1. Multi-Agency Radiation Survey and Site Investigation Manual, NUREG-1575, Rev. 1, U. S. Nuclear Regulatory Commission, Washington, D. C , August

162 1. K. Becker, Rose H. W. Lu and P. S. Weng, Environmental and personnel dosimetry in tropical countries, Proceedings of the Third International Conference on Luminescence Dosimetry, Riso Report No. 249, Part III, pp , Denmark (1971) 2. P. S. Weng, C. M. Tsai and T. C. Chu, Enviromental radioactivity and radiation measurements in Taiwan, Republic of China, The Natural Radiation Environment II, CONE P1, pp , Houston (1972) 3. P. S. Weng, The preoperational environmental radioactivity surveillance program for the first nuclear power plant in Taiwan, Proceedings of the International Symposium on Nuclear Power Technology and Economics, Vol. II, pp , National Science Council, Taipei (1975) 4. P. S. Weng, Y. M. Lin and T. C. Chu, Measurement and monitoring of radioactivity in aquatic environment including precipitation on Taiwan, Proceedings of the Colloquium on Aquatic Environment in Pacific Region, pp , Academia Sinica, Taipei (1978) 5. T. Y. Chang-Mei, C. F. Wu and P. S. Weng, Monitoring of environmental radon-222 in selected areas of Taiwan Province of the Republic of China, First International Congress of the International Radiation Protection Association, Book of papers, Vol. III, pp , Jerusalem (1980) 6. C. Furetta and P. S. Weng, Operational Thermoluminescence Dosimetry, World Scientific, Singapore (1998) 7. (2002) 8. F. J. Bradley, The international atom: evolution of radiation control programs, Health Physics 83, (2002) 9. D. W. Moeller, Environmental health physics: 50 years of progress, Health Physics 88, (2005) 153

163 7.1A 1953 (Schulman) (radiophotoluminescent glass dosimeterrplgd ) (predose) 1 (mgy) (Asahi) (Karlsruhe) (0.01 mgy) (TLD) 60% AgPO nm nm (AgPO 4 ) Ag + PO - 4 PO

164 PO - 4 (hpo 4 ) PO - 4 (e - )Ag + Ag + Ag PO - 4 hpo 4 Ag + Ag + Ag 2+ Ag Ag 2+ Ag 2+ (7.1A) (7.2A) Ag + + e Ag ( ) (7.1A) Ag hpo 4 PO + Ag 2+ ( ) (7.2A) 7.1A Ag + PO - 4 (e - ) hpo 4 Ag Ag 2+ ( ) nm Ag Ag 2+ (Ag + ) nm 7.1A Ag + Ag Ag 2+ Ag Ag 2+ Ag (Ag Ag 2+ ) 400 SC-1 155

165 mm 3 15 g FD-7 FD-7 11% 32% 51% 6% mm 3 x SC-1 FGD-202 FGD Cs 6 mgy FGD-202 SC-1 3. x

166 7.2A 82 (1993) A ( ) (TLD) (RPL) (OSL) 1. RPL = radiophotoluminescence 2. OSL = optically stimulated luminescence 3. TLD = thermoluminescence dosimeter (film badge) TLD OSL( Luxel) RPL( ) 7.2A 7.3A 3. ( ) 3 1 (<22 157

167 7.2A 7.3A ) 1 (45) 90% (2004) (2004) 3. M. S. Akselrod and S. W. S. McKeever, A Radiation Dosimetry Method Using Optically Stimulated Luminescence, Radiat. Protect. Dosim. 81,

168 (1999) 4. K. Kasper, Optically Stimulated Luminescence Dosimeters, Health Phys. 81, (2001) 159

169 160

170 (1971)12 15 (IAEA) Regulations for the Safe Transport of Radioactive Material ( ) 3 10 msv/h 2 msv/h msv/h kg (excepted package) 161

171 8.3 (Zero Power Reactor at Lung-Tan, ZPRL) 20% 1 (cask) ( ) 24 (8.1) 59 (1970) (1971) ZPRL (8.2)

172 (HEU) HEU (LEU) HEU HEU LEU 1988 (HEU)1992 (LEU) 3 (DOE) (record of decision, ROD) (THOR) % (MTR) (MTR-HEU) HEU %TRIGA TRIGA Training, Research, Isotopes, General Atomics (General Atomics) 163

173 THOR THOR 2030 MTR-HEU DOE ROD MTR-HEU THOR NAC Transnucléaire (TN) IU-04 DOE (Sea Bird)(8.3) MTR-HEU MTR-HEU 10 ( 9.9 Gy/h) 134 Cs 137 Cs 144 Ce ANL/RERTR/TM-26 ( ORIGEN-2 ) 31 (MWd) 164

174 10 0.5W IU W 8.1THOR IU-04 IU cm ( ) cm THOR cm 2 ( ) cm cm ( ) 0.09 cm U-A % W ( ) W 1. ( ) TN IU-04 MTR (8.1) DOE IU-04 ()AA-267 () ( ) 165

175 DOE IU-04 AA-267 (8.4) 40 MTR THOR 35 MTR-HEU IU-04 IU-04 THOR THOR 8 20 IU-04 THOR cm 3 3 MTR 34 ( ) IU-04 ISO-20 MTR DOE (1) (2) DOE DOE 5 (1) 166

176 (2) (3) (1) (2) TN (3)

177 DOE (Charleston) (Savannah River Site, SRS) msv/h( )100 µsv/h( ) 18 µsv/h 99.8 µsv/h 8.3 RADSHIP IU-04 MTR-HEU (µsv/h) 35 THOR 1 THOR

178 8.3 ( ) ( ) A B C () ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) 169

179 THOR ( 85 Kr) THOR 85 Kr THOR χ/q / THOR (0.1 / ) Kr χ Bq/m 3 Q Bq/s 170

180 8.5 ( ) ( ) A (a) (b) B (a) (b) (c) C (a) (b) (c) (d) (1963 )

181 (1) (2) (AECL) C AECL 1988 Nordion (3) (4) Nordion C C (Cl) 2000 Nordin C C C Nordion AEC C Nordion (hot cell) AECL 52 C Gy Gy

182 1.25 MeV 3 Nordion 52 C Nordion 52 C (1) C (2) 60 (8.6) (3) 60 C C AECL 52 C MCNP () 52 C F-168 (U) (1) F-168 (U) (2) F-168 (U) 1 (3) 52 C F-168 (U) 173

183 Nordion (1) (a)60 (b) (c) (2) (1) (2) (3) (4) (5) (1) (2) (3) (4) (5) 60 (6) (7) 52 C Nordion (1) (2) (3) (4) F-168 (U) 52 C / / / / / 174

184 (2001 ) C Nordion (1) 69 APL ( ) 6 (2) (Oakland) 16 (3) (Ottawa) (Montreal) (2005 )6 20 Nordion (1) 2 msv/h (2)

185 (3) a. ( 8.9) Nordion 5 F-168 (U) (Atomic Energy Control Board) (Canadian Transport Packaging of Radioactive Materials Regulations) (IAEA)(U) b. 60 7,400 TBq (4) TBq (38,069 Ci) Microshield V cm 6.6 µsv/h1 1.1 µsv/h 0.1 (5) 5 cm 6.6 µsv/h 0.1 II- (6) II

186 2. (1) ( ) 69 APL (2) TBq (38,069 Ci) MicroShield V µsv/h1 1.1 µsv/h µsv/h 6 h = 6.6 µsv < 1 msv (3) MicroShield V cm µsv/h1 1.1 µsv/h 20.32cm cm 26.6 cm cm µsv/h1 h = 1.1 µsv < 1 msv 26.6 cm 16.4 cm 1.27 cm Nordion F

187 (4) a. b. c. d. e. 178

188 1. P. S. Weng, Safety consideration for recharge of THOR spent fuels in ZPRL, Nuclear Technology 12, (1971) (1982 ) (2000) (2001) 5. (2004) 179

189 180

190 9.1 (ICRP-60) (risk) ICRP (detriment) ICRP (disposal) (dilute and disperse) (concentrate and retain)

191 (zero release) 10 ( ) ICRP (source term) ICRP 9.2 (1) (2) (3) 182

192 183 (4) (preparedness) (treatment) (retrievability) 1.

193 184 () (1) (2) (3) α 2. (migration)

194 (scenario) 9.3 ICRP-60 (1991 ) ICRP (practice) (intervention) ( ) ICRP 1. (justification) 2. [ (ALARA)] ( ) 185

195 ( ) (optimization) 3. ICRP ICRP (normal release) (stochastic release) ( ) 186

196 ICRP msv ( ) 9.4 ICRP-77 ICRP (differential cost-benefit analysis)

197 0.3 msv/a ICRP 3. ICRP ICRP ICRP (upper bound) 0.3 msv/a 188

198 1. ICRP ( ) 2. ICRP 189

199 190 ( )

200 ()

201 ICRP 1. ICRP 0.3 msv/a 10-5 (1) (2) 192

202 2. ( ) ( ICRP 0.3 msv/a ICRP 193

203 ICRP 2 10 msv 10 msv 100 msv 100 msv

204 (1) (2) (3) (4) (peer review) (5) (6) 195

205 ICRP ICRP ( ) (1) (2) 196

206 197 (3) ( )

207 9.6 ICRP 0.3 msv

208 10 msv 100 msv 199

209 1. International Commission on Radiological Protection, Radiation Protection Principles for the Disposal of Solid Radioactive Waste, ICRP Publication 46, Annals of the ICRP 15 (4), (1985) 2. International Commission on Radiological Protection, Optimization and Decision-making in Radiological Protection, ICRP Publication 55, Annals of the ICRP 20 (1), (1989) 3. International Commission on Radiological Protection, 1990 Recommendations of the International Commission on Radiological Protection, ICRP Publication 60, Annals of the ICRP 21 (1-3), (1991) 4. International Commission on Radiological Protection, A Conceptual Framework, ICRP Publication 64, Annals of the ICRP 23 (1), (1993) 5. International Commission on Radiological Protection, Protection from Potential Exposures: Application to Selected Radiation Sources, ICRP Publication 76, Annals of the ICRP 27 (2), (1997) 6. International Commission on Radiological Protection, Radiological Protection Policy for the Disposal of Radioactive Waste, ICRP Publication 77, Annals of the ICRP 27 Supplement, (1997) 7. International Commission on Radiological Protection, Protection of the Public in Situations of Prolonged Radiation Exposure, ICRP Publication 82, Annals of the ICRP 29 (1/2), (1999) 200

210 10.1 (1) (2) (3) (1) (2) (3) (George W. Bush) (Calvert Cliff) (Energy Policy Act) (risk indemnification insurance) (Tony Blair) % %

211 (BBC) % 14% 10.2 ( 99 ) 10.1 Surry Surry (10.1) 20 (Nuclear Regulatory Commission, NRC)

212

213

214 (2006 )

215

216

217 (IAEA) (1) ( ) (2) (3) 208

218 2. (1) (DECON) (immediate dismantlement) (ALARA) (2) (SAFSTOR) 60( ) ( 50 ) (safe storage with deferred dismantlement) (3) (ENTOMB) ( ) (entombment) ( ) 209

219 ( ) ( 3 ) ( ) (190 ) 6 (15 ) ( 15 ) (Inconel) 210

220 % ( ) ( ) ( ) 211

221

222 (VLLW) (National Academy of Sciences)2003 (low-level) (low-activity) (Nuclear Waste Policy Act) (DOE) (tank waste) 1 LLW LAW 1. (mixed waste) (hazardous waste) 213

223 (IAEA) 0( ) Bq/g 100 Bq/g ( ) Bq/m 3 ( 3 H 14 C Bq/m 3 ) Bq/m 3 ( 3 H 14 C Bq/m 3 ) IAEA (10 µsv/a) a = annum() (Slovakia) 10 µsv/a 1 msv IAEA IAEA 214

224 IAEA (OECD) (NEA) IAEA 10.3 (ALARA)

225 1992 (nonboiling forced-draft evaporator, NBFE) 5,600 m () >

226 10.7 (Yucca Mountain) ( 10.4) 10.4 (IAEA) GWe (10 9 ) GWe (Albuquerque) (Sandia) 4 (Energy Policy Act) 10 (Kyoto Protocol) (2006 ) 16%

227 1. (1983) 2. (1992) (2005) 4. U.S. Department of Energy, Decommissioning Handbook, DOE/EV/ , Washington D.C. (1980) 5. International Atomic Energy Agency, Methodology and Technology of Decommissioning Nuclear Facilitiees, IAEA Technical Report Series No. 267, Vienna (1986) 6. International Atomic Energy Agency, Decontamination and Demolition of Concrete and Metal Structures During Decommissioning of Nuclear Facilities, IAEA Technical Report Series No. 286, Vienna (1988) 7. G. Linsley, The Radwaste Programme and the Management of Very Low Level Waste, Proceedings of an International Symposium, International Atomic Energy Agency, Vienna (1997) 8. ( ) 218

228 1.1A 1.2A ( ) (1) 235 (1%) 235 (2) 235 (0.5%) (1%) (10-4 ) (3) 235 (0.5%) ( ) (4) (5) (6) ( )

229 (37 GBq 1 Ci)

230 (1) [ (0.05%) ] (2) (3) [ (0.05%) ] (4) (5) 19. (1) (2) (3)

231

232 (1) (0.05%) (2) (0.05%)

233 1 1.3A ( ) (1) % % (2) 235 (3) 235 (4) (2 kbq) (9 MBq) (0.1 µg)

234 (1) (2)

235 ( ) (1) (2) (3) 226

236 22. ( ) ( )

237 31. A 1 A 2 A 1 A A 1. ( ) ( ) 228

238 7. (1) (2) (3) (4)

239 A 1. ( 97 ) (1) (2) 230

240 (3) 10 mm 0.07 mm 3 mm (4) (5) ICRP 2005 (6) (7) (8) (9) 5. (1) 231

241 (2) (1) (2) (3) (1) 76.2% (2) 11.1% (3) 10.1% 232

242 (4) 2.6% 233

243 234

244 201 31, , , 33, 34, 148, 185, 187, 229, 191, 194, 199,229 63, 171,175, , 107, 108 9, 49, 53, 139, 183, ,191, 192, 198, 199 ( ) 4 ( ) 5, 25, 73, 154, 230, , DNA 26, , 185, , 175, 176, , 117, , 133, 161, , 184, 211, 216, , , , , 38 6, 9, , 151 ( ) 5 ( ) 5-11, 13-14, 27-29, 31-32, 42, 70, 73, 130, 175, 225, , , 174, , , , 14, 28, 70, 75, 119, 144, 148, 161, 174, 178,

245 6, , 27, , , , 130, 194, 28, , 54, 57-61, , 216, , , , , 145 MARSSIM 152 1, 23, 25, 34, 35, 44-47, 55, 57, 108, 111, 113, 126, 133, , 145, 148, , 161, 178, 203, 218 5, 13, 29, 41, 42, 52-53, 58, 181, , 189, 194, 196, 198, 204, 213 5, 27, 41, 43, 141, , , , , 8,14, 27-29, 39, 41, 140, , 37, 132, 150, 174, 185, 188, 209, 232, 9, 10, 29, 30, 32-34, 75, 80-81, 86, 94-98, , , , 161, 163,181, 184, , , 220, , 40 4, 5, 21, 25-28, 41, 230 3, 4, 6,-7, 25, 70, 146, , 220, , 3, , 150, , , 140, 216 2, , 74-76, 78, 80-88, 42-43, 73, , 194, , 121, 124, , , 183, 194, , , 211, , 219, 223,

246 219 88, 113, , 134, , 113, , ( ) 1, 2 ( ) ( ) 1, 3, 4 ( ) 3, 4, 70 30, , , 229 1, 3-4, 7, , 50, 52, 54-56, , 17-18, 30-31, 38, 135, 138, 151, , , , , , 6-7, 25, 28, 30, 49, 53-54, 65, 69-70, 74, 79, 86, 91-92, 94, 107, 120, 122, 124, 161, , 183, , 220, , , 49, 52, , 209, 211, 221, , 9-10, 13, , 151, 170, 229, , , 28-30, 32-34, 36-38, 40, 42, , , 135, 140, 148, , 164,

247 47, 51-54, , 57-58, 60-61, 87-88, 94, 104, 108, 113, 115, 125, , 133, 139, , 157, 162, 167, 172, , , , 47-49, 52-54, 58, 79, 95-96, 108, 121, 131, 164, 183, , , 166, , 77, 1, 47-54, 57-58, 65, 92, 94-98, 81-82, 92, 107, 120, , 187, , 124, , , , 98, 100, , , , , 138, 142, 144, , 152, 163,167, 170, 174, 178, , 188, 190, 198, 202, , , , 218, , 225, , 108, , , , 133, , 150, 162, 164, 168, , , , , , 21, 23, 125, 127, 128, 129, 130, 134, 139, 162, 164, ,163 52, 127, 185, , 199 5, 25 ICRP 30, 33, 35, 38-42, 151, , , , 196, 198, 200, , 164, 176, 208, ,

248 IAEA 111, 116, 176, 208, , , 21, 82, 149, , , , 78, 81, 84-89, 91-92, 94, 97-98, , 115, , 134, , , , , 92, 187, , 57-58, 65, 94-98, 108, , , , 133, 138, 164, 181, , 211, 217, , , , 198, 207, , 78-81, 85-89, 91-92, , , , , 207, , 79, 88, , , 75, 86, 88, 99, 108, 116, , 123, , 207, , , 13-14, 27, 30-32, 169, 171, 227, , 26-30, 39, 41, 231 5, 15-17, 22, 173 1, 11, 13-14, 19-20, 22-23, 25, 28, 37-38, 44-46, 55, 70, 120, 135, , 144, 148, , 174, 178, 181, 219, , 72, 76-77, 90, 121, , 29, 40, , 187, 192, ,

249 102, , , , 139, 146, 148, 154, , 137, , 濶 , 16 65, 71-72, 77, 81-84, 91-93, , 184, , 114, , 127, , 135, 145, , 184, 189, 193, 204, , 182, , , 185, 186, 188, , 194, , 93-94, , , 199, , 41, , 41, , 29-30, 32-33, 37, , , 196, 198, , , 125, 152, 175, , , 145, , 39, 39-43,

250 141, 149, , , 18-22, 25-34, 37-43, 58, 63-64, 67, 70-71, 73, 98, , 132, , , 146, , , 161, , , , , , , , 214, 221, 227, , , 118, , 184, , 57-59, 64, 93-99, 102, 128, , 162, , , 29, 143, , 186, , 198, ,

251 242