Chapter 16 Locomotion in Humans Summary Ch.16 Locomotion in Human/1 Table 1: Locomotion in human (Section 16.1) Locomotion Example of locomotion Structure involved in locomotion One of the important characteristics of living things The ability of organisms to move from one place to another Walking, running, climbing, leaping, jumping, etc. (Figs. 16.2 and 16.3) Skeleton, joints, skeletal muscles, tendons and ligaments Table 2: Two types of skeletal tissues (Section 16.2) Bone (Figs. 16.4 and 16.5) Cartilage (Figs. 16.6 and 16.7) Structure Mainly contains calcium salts, living cells, protein and water At both ends of a bone have tiny cavities filled with red bone marrow A hollow space in the middle of the bone filled with yellow bone marrow Located at the two ends of a bone Elastic and flexible Contains living cells and contain less calcium salts Function Give the bones hardness and rigidity Supports and maintains the shape of the body Protects some internal organs such as the brain, spinal cord, heart and lungs The site of red blood cells production The site for storage of fats Serve as a shock absorber and reduce friction between two bones during movement 1
Ch.16 Locomotion in Human/2 Table 3: The framework of human skeleton (Section 16.2; Fig. 16.8) Structure Function Skull Consists of cranium Protects the brain (Fig. 16.9) Consists of jaw bones Hold the teeth in sockets S-shaped, run along the length of the body from the neck to the lower back 1.For spinal cord runs through Axial skeleton Vertebral column Made up of vertebra which has a large central part and a canal (Fig. 16.10) Each vertebra with bony projections 2.Protect the spinal cord For muscle attachment Between the two adjacent vertebrae has a disc of cartilage Absorbs shock produced during locomotion and allow slight movement between vertebrae Ribs and sternum (Fig. 16.12) The ribs are connected with the sternum and the vertebral column to form rib cage Protects the lungs and the heart Involved in breathing movement Appendicular skeleton Pectoral girdle and forelimbs (Figs. 16.13 and 16.14) Pelvic girdle and hindlimbs (Figs. 16.15 and 16.16) The pectoral girdle is made up of two halves The girdle connects with the bone in the upper arm, and connects in turn with the bones in the forearms, wrists, palms and fingers The pelvic girdle is made up of two halves which are fused together The girdle connects with the bone in the upper legs, and connects in turns with the bones in the lower legs, feet and toes Provides support to the left and right shoulders Forces generated by forelimbs can be transmitted through the pectoral girdle to vertebral column Forces generated by the legs can be transmitted through the pelvic girdle directly to the vertebral column Table 4: The functions of human skeleton (Section 16.2) Support Movement Protection Production of blood cells Storage Forms a strong framework to raise the body above the ground Gives definite shapes to different parts of the body Provides surfaces for attachment of skeletal muscles for locomotion Protects some delicate organs e.g. the brain, the spinal cord, the heart and the lungs Produces red blood cells, white blood cells and blood platelets Stores calcium salts and fats 2
Table 5: The characteristic features of skeletal muscles and tendons (Section 16.3) Ch.16 Locomotion in Human/3 Skeletal muscles (Fig. 16.17) Tendons (Fig. 16.18) Characteristic feature Attached to the bone Made up of elongated muscle fibres Made up of numerous tough and inelastic fibres Attached to bone surfaces Importance Contraction will lead to movement of the bone Able to contract 1.Transmit the pull directly to bones when the muscle contracts 2.Lead to an immediate movement of the bone Table 6: The functions of skeletal muscles (Section 16.3) The principal effectors in the body and work according to the nervous impulses coming form the central nervous system Function Muscle contraction allows human to move from place to place Allow the body to control and maintain the posture, e.g. the positions of head, trunk and limbs Allow the body to perform various physical activities and actions Table 7: Types of joints in human skeleton (Section 16.4) Definition of joints A junction where two or more bones meet Type of joints Immovable joints Movable joints Table 8: The characteristic features of joints (Section 16.4) Immovable joints Location Between the cranium and the upper jaw bones Between the bones in the pelvic girdle Characteristic feature Do not allow any movement between bones Hinge joints (Fig. 16.21) Elbow joint Knee joint Allow movement of bones in one plane only Movable joints Ball-and-socket joints (Fig. 16.22) Shoulder joint Hip joint 1.The ball-shaped head of one bone fits into the cup-shaped socket of the other bone 2.Allow rotational movement of bones in all directions 3
Ch.16 Locomotion in Human/4 Table 9: The structure of a movable joint (Section 16.4; Fig. 16.23) Capsule Structure Characteristic feature Function Synovial membrane A tough sheath in the junctions of the bones Locate in the inner surface of the capsule Protects the joints Secretes the synovial fluid Synovial fluid Serves as a lubricant Reduces friction between the bone surfaces during movement Cartilage Ligaments Cover at the ends of the bones Bundles of strong, elastic fibres at the outside of the capsule Reduces friction between bones Prevents the bones from wearing out and absorb shock during movement Hold the bones in position and prevent dislocation Allow the bones to move at the joint Table 10: The action of opposing muscle pairs in movement (Section 16.5) Opposing muscles (antagonistic muscles) An example of opposing muscle pairs Muscles work in pairs with opposite actions When one muscle contracts, the other relaxes The muscles in the elbow joint (Fig. 16.27) Flexor Extensor The muscle that bends the limb by its contraction e.g. biceps The muscle that straightens the limb by its contraction e.g. triceps Table 11: The skeletal muscles, bones and joints form lever systems (Section 16.5; Fig. 16.28) Level system Body structure Action Advantage Lever Fulcrum Effort The bone The joint The muscles Muscle contracts apply forces on the bones across the joint and moves the load The small contractions of muscles can produce a large movement of the limb bones Load The weight of bones and tissues and the additional weight to be moved 4
Ch.16 Locomotion in Human/5 Glossary locomotion 行動 292 movement of the whole body of an organism from one place to another bone 骨 294 skeletal tissue composed of cells which are distributed in a matrix of collagen fibres together with calcium and phosphates cartilage 軟骨 150, 294 skeletal tissue of vertebrates; covers the ends of the bones to reduce friction between the surfaces of bones during movement endoskeleton 內骨骼 294 the internal skeleton of vertebrates red bone marrow 紅骨髓 294 marrow found in the spongy bone tissue at the ends of long bones which produces red and white blood cells spinal cord 脊髓 259, 294 yellow bone marrow appendicular skeleton a long mass tissue of central nervous system, extends from and connects with the brain and lies within vertebral column 黃骨髓 294 soft yellow fatty tissue filling the hollow cavity in the shafts of long bones in adults 附肢骨骼 295 part of skeleton attaches to the axial skeleton, comprising the pectoral and pelvic girdles, fore limbs and hind limbs axial skeleton 中軸骨骼 295 a part of the vertebrate skeleton which consists of the skull, vertebrae and ribs cranium 顱 270, 296 made up of bones enclosing the brain of vertebrates, fused with the upper jaw girdle 帶 296 the skeletal structure of vertebrates by which the appendages are associated with the vertebral column jaw 顎 101, 296 the bony structure forming part of the mouth in vertebrate, bearing teeth, divided into the upper jaw and the lower jaw 5 生物整個身體在不同地方移動 一種骨骼組織, 當中的細胞分佈在膠原纖維基質內, 當中並沉積了鈣和磷 脊椎動物的骨骼組織 ; 覆蓋骨的末端以減低活動時骨面之間的摩擦 脊椎動物體內的骨骼 骨髓的一種, 位於長骨末端的鬆質骨, 是產生紅血球和白血球的位置 中樞神經系統中呈長形的組織, 由腦延伸出來, 並與它連接, 而其本身則藏於脊柱內 柔軟呈黃色的脂肪組織, 注滿於成年人骨幹的空腔內 骨骼的一部分, 與中軸骨骼相連, 由肩帶 腰帶 前肢和後肢組成 脊椎動物骨骼的一部分, 包括顱骨 脊柱和肋骨 脊椎動物中包圍腦部的骨, 與上顎合而為一 脊椎動物的一種骨骼結構, 附肢透過帶與脊柱聯繫起來 由兩塊骨 ( 上顎骨和下顎骨 ) 組成的骨狀構造, 形成脊椎動物的口的一部分
Ch.16 Locomotion in Human/6 limb bone 肢骨 296 bones of arms and legs in vertebrate skull 顱骨 238, 259, 296 vertebra (pl. vertebrae) vertebral column the anterior part of the internal skeleton of the vertebrate, contains and protects the brain 椎骨 296 one of the bone which make up the vertebral column of vertebrates 脊柱 152, 259, 296 a series of bones that extend from the head to the tail along the back of the body of vertebrate, enclosing the spinal cord caudal vertebra 尾椎 297 vertebrae which supports the tail of a mammal; fuse together to form the coccyx in man cervical vertebra lumbar vertebrae 脊椎動物臂和腿部的骨 脊椎動物內骨骼的前部分, 包裹及保護腦部 構成脊椎動物脊柱的其中一塊骨 頸椎 297 vertebrae in the neck region 頸部的椎骨 腰椎 297 vertebrae lie between the thoracic and sacral vertebrae, located in the abdominal region and are the largest and heaviest of all vertebrae sacral vertebrae 薦椎 297 the posterior vertebrae of vertebrates which joins to the pelvic girdle, often fused together thoracic vertebra 胸椎 297 vertebrae in the thoracic region, to which the ribs are attached false rib 假肋 298 the rib that joins with the thoracic vertebra at the back side and with the 7th rib at the abdomen side (instead of joining with the sternum); includes the 8th, 9th and 10th pairs of the ribs floating rib 浮肋 298 the rib that joins with the thoracic vertebra at the back side, but does not join with rib or sternum at the abdomen side; includes the 11th and 12th pairs of ribs pectoral girdle 肩帶 298 a skeletal supporting structure in shoulder region in vertebrates, for the attachment of the fore limbs to the axial skeleton 從脊椎動物的頭部一直延伸至尾部的一連串骨, 位於背部, 包圍脊髓 支持哺乳動物尾部的椎骨 ; 人類的尾椎融合形成尾骨 介乎在胸椎和薦椎之間的椎骨, 位處腹部位置, 是所有種類的椎骨中最大和最重的一種 脊椎動物的後椎骨, 與腰帶接合, 數塊薦椎骨通常是融合的 在胸部位置的椎骨, 與肋骨連接 指第八 九和十對肋骨, 它們在背面與胸椎相連, 在腹面並沒有與胸骨相連, 而是與第七對肋骨相連 指第十一和十二對肋骨, 它們在背面與胸椎相連, 但在腹面則沒有與任何身體結構 ( 如肋骨或胸骨 ) 相連 在脊椎動物的肩膀部分, 作為支撐的骨骼, 把前肢連接至中軸骨骼 6
Ch.16 Locomotion in Human/7 true rib 真肋 298 the rib with its ventral side attached to the sternum and its dorsal side attached to the thoracic vertebrae joint 關節 299 the place where two bones join, generally allowing some form of movement between the bones pelvic girdle 腰帶 299 a skeletal supporting structure the hip region in vertebrates; for the attachment of the hind limbs to the axial skeleton connective tissue 結締組織 76, 300 skeletal muscle 骨骼肌 197, 300 the supporting tissues of the animal body including bone, cartilage, adipose tissue and the fibrous tissues supporting and connecting internal organs, often contains large amounts of non-living substances muscles connected with bones; capable of rapid contraction and controlled by impulses from the nervous system muscle tone 肌肉緊張 301 the state of muscular tension caused by the contraction of muscle fibres tendon 腱 301 a strong and inelastic tissue that connects muscles to bones smooth muscle 平滑肌 302 the muscle found in the wall of the internal organs except the heart; is spindle-shaped and not under conscious control, is long-acting ball-and-socket joint 球窩關節 303 a type of joint of bones, in which the ball-like end of one bone fits into a depression in another; allows free movement in all directions elbow joint 肘關節 303 joint formed between the upper arm bone (humerus) and lower arm bones hinge joint 鉸鏈關節 303 type of joint formed between two bones allowing movement in one plane only, such as the elbow joint, the knee joint, the finger joint and the knee joint 在前面與胸骨相連, 在背面連接胸椎的肋骨 兩塊骨的交接點, 一般容許骨作若干形式的活動 在脊椎動物的髖部分, 作為支撐的骨骼, 把後肢連接至中軸骨骼 是動物身體的支持組織, 當中包括骨 軟骨 脂肪組織, 與及接連體內器官的纖維組織 ; 結締組織一般含大量無生命的物質 與骨連接的肌肉, 能迅速收縮, 其活動由神經系統的神經脈衝所控制 肌纖維持續收縮, 形成肌肉處於緊張的狀態 結實而無彈性的組織, 將肌肉連接至骨 除心臟壁以外其他體內器官壁的肌肉 ; 呈長條形, 不受意識控制, 所產生的作用是持久的 骨骼的關節, 當中一塊末端呈球形的骨, 拼合進另一塊骨碗狀的窩裏, 使肢體能在不同方向自由活動 在上臂骨 ( 肱骨 ) 與前臂骨之間形成的關節 兩塊骨之間的一種關節, 只容許骨在一個平面上活動 例子有肘關節 膝關節 手指關節和腳趾關節 7
8 Ch.16 Locomotion in Human/8 hip joint 髖關節 303 a kind of ball-and-socket joint formed by the head of the femur and the cup-shaped cavity of the hipbone immovable joint 不動關節 303 a fixed joint; does not allow any movement between bones knee joint 膝關節 303 a hinge joint between the upper leg bone and the lower leg bone movable joint 活動關節 303 a joint that allows one bone to move in relation to another; different types of movable joints allow different degrees of movement shoulder joint 肩關節 303 a kind of ball-and-socket joint, is the joint found between the upper arm bone and the pectoral girdle capsule 囊 304 fibrous envelope round certain organ, e.g. a joint ligament 韌帶 304 tough flexible tissue made up of proteins which holds the bones of a joint together synovial fluid 滑液 304 a transparent sticky fluid found inside the cavity of a synovial joint; secreted by the synovial membrane; for lubrication and nourishing the structures at the joint synovial membrane 滑膜 304 the smooth membrane of living connective tissue lining the inner surface of the capsule of a joint; responsible for the secretion of synovial fluid into the cavity artificial joint 人工關節 306 a man-made joint, mostly using a metal for the main part and a plastic for the smooth joint surface, used to replace the damaged joints osteoarthritis 骨關節炎 306 a form of arthritis, occurring mainly in the elderly, characterized by chronic degeneration of the cartilage at the joints antagonistic muscles 拮抗肌 307 muscles which produce opposite movements so that contraction of one must be accompanied by relaxation of the other 屬球窩關節的一種, 由股骨的末端與髖骨的碗狀的窩構成 為固定的關節, 骨與骨之間沒有任何活動 上腿骨與下腿骨之間的鉸鏈關節 骨與骨之間可作相對活動的關節, 活動的幅度和性質, 視乎關節的種類而有所分別 球窩關節的一種, 為上臂骨與肩帶中間的關節 包圍若干器官 ( 如關節 ) 的纖維膜 堅韌而富彈性的組織, 由蛋白質組成 ; 將關節的骨連在一起 透明的黏性液體, 在滑膜關節的空腔中找到, 由滑膜分泌出來, 以潤滑關節的構造, 並提供營養素 平滑的活結締組織薄膜, 附於關節囊的內壁上, 分泌滑液進入空腔內 人造關節, 主要由金屬製造主體, 並以塑膠製成平滑的關節面, 用以取代受創的關節 關節炎的一種, 主要由老年人患上, 患者關節中的軟骨會逐步退化 產生相反運動的肌肉, 即一塊肌肉收縮時另一塊肌肉伴隨放鬆
Ch.16 Locomotion in Human/9 biceps 二頭肌 307 muscles on the upper arm with two tendons on one end attached to the scapula; the contraction of the biceps causes bending of the upper limb extensor 伸肌 307 a muscle which, by its contraction, causes limbs to be straightened flexor 屈肌 307 a muscle which, by its contraction, causes limbs to be bent opposing muscles 拮抗肌 307 see antagonistic muscles triceps 三頭肌 307 a bundle of skeletal muscle that has three tendons at one end; its contraction extends the arm effort 施力 308 the use of physical energy to perform activities fulcrum 支點 308 concerned with levers and joints; the place at which support for the leverage is found lever 槓桿 308 a simple machine consisting of a rigid bar pivoted on a fixed point and used to transmit force, as in raising or moving a weight at one end by pushing down on the other load 負荷 308 the overall force to which a structure is subjected in supporting a weight or mass or in resisting externally applied forces arthritis 關節炎 311 a condition that results in inflammation of the joints, causing pain when moved osteoporosis 骨質疏鬆症 79, 311 a disease in which the bones become extremely porous, are subject to fracture, occurring especially in women following menopause and often leading to curvature of the spine from vertebral collapse, risk factors include eating low-calcium diet and not taking regular exercise 上臂的肌肉, 其中一端有兩條腱, 連接肩胛骨 ; 二頭肌收縮會使上臂彎曲 收縮時使肢體拉直的肌肉 收縮時使肢體彎曲的肌肉 為一束骨髂肌, 其中一端有三條腱 ; 三頭肌收縮, 會使手臂伸直 利用物理性的能量進行活動 與槓桿和關節有關, 指槓桿系統中支撐槓桿的位置 簡單的機械, 包括一條硬桿條, 置於某個固定點上, 作為支撐桿條的位置 桿條本身則用以傳遞力量, 當桿條的一端被按下時, 另一端的重物就會因此而升高或移動 物件在支撐重物, 或抵抗外加力量時總共承受的力 關節發炎, 導致關節移動時產生痛楚 患者骨骼出現極多細孔, 因而骨折的機會增加, 停經後的婦女患上此症的機會尤高 ; 此疾病使脊椎下陷, 造成脊柱彎曲 ; 膳食中吸收的鈣不足 及缺乏運動都會增加患上骨質疏鬆症的機會 9
Ch.16 Locomotion in Human/10 rheumatoid arthritis 類風濕性關節炎 311 a chronic disease, due to attacking of body tissue by self immune system, marked by stiffness and inflammation of the joints, weakness, loss of mobility and deformity 一種慢性病, 因身體的免疫系統攻擊本身的構造, 而導致關節發炎硬化且脆弱, 逐漸失去活動能力, 甚至產生變形的情況 10