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(CIP) : /. :, 2003 ISBN 7-5045-4037-4... - - - - -. T S934. 3 CIP (2003) 097666 ( 1 : 100029) : * 787 1092 16 14. 25 353 2004 4 1 2004 4 1 : : 26. 00 : 010-64929211 : 010-64911190 : http : / / www.class.com.cn : 010-64911344
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( ) ( 1 ) ( 1 ) ( 11 ) ( 13 ) ( ) ( 19 ) ( 19 ) ( 36 ) ( ) ( 42 ) ( 42 ) ( 46 ) ( 47 ) ( 57 ) ( ) ( 67 ) ( 67 ) ( 69 ) ( ) ( 73 ) ( 73 ) ( 92 ) ( ) ( 97 ) ( 97 ) (110 ) ( ) (117 ) (117 )
(118 ) (119 ) (129 ) (138 ) ( ) (153 ) (153 ) (161 ) ( ) (164 ) (164 ) (177 ) (179 ) (191 ) ( ) (195 ) (195 ) (201 ) (203 ) (210 ) (215 ) (220 )
() :,,,,, 1. (1 ),, ( ),,,,,, 411,,, 150,, (2 ), ;,,, (3 ),, (4 ), 1
,, 2. (1 ) 110130 mm,,,,,,, ( ), (2 ), ( ), ( 10 mm10 mm10 mm),,,,,, (, ),,, 810 mm, 11a 11 a) b ) c) 3. 250 mm150 mm30 mm,,, 1015 mm, 11b 4. ( ), 11c ( ), 28 mm, 110120 mm,, 2
5. (1 ),,,,,, (2 ), 25 mm25 mm : 1) 2 h/ 3, h/ 3, d, 12a 2) 11, d, d, l, 12b 3) 12b, h, L, 12c 4) h, l, L, 12d 5),,,, 12e 12 a) d b ) c) d ) e) 3
,,, 1. ( ),,,, 11 11 ( ) ( H R C) 45 820 840 50 T7 T 12 770 800 60 40Cr 840 860 45 65Mn 790 820 55 GCr15 830 850 60 2.,,,,, 500,, 12 12 ( H RC) 30 35 35 40 40 45 45 50 50 55 55 60 > 60 45 440 480 400 450 350 380 280 320 200 240 T7 T8 A 350 380 280 320 220 260 160180 T 10 T12 A 300 340 220 260 160180 65Mn 400 440 360 400 3.,,,,, 13 4
13 ( ) ( ) ( h ) ( H BS ) T 7T 8 A 740760 650680 23 140187 T10T 12A 750770 680700 23 149198 65Mn 770800 700730 23 180230 GCr15 790810 710720 34 179229 Cr12 850870 720750 34 207255 4.,,,,,,,,,, 1. 100 1 000,,, 2. (1 ) :, (2 ),, 14 14 T 7, T7 A,, ( ) T 8, T8 A, T12, T12A ( ) 5
(3 ) 15 15 ( ) ( ) 65Mn 820 360540,,,,, 60 Si2CrA 870 310420,,,, 45 840 200480,,, 3. (1 ) 1), ( ) 2),,, : 4 mm 5 mm, 67 mm ; 3), (600700),,,,,,,,, (2 ),,, 13 4.,, : (1 ), (2 ) ( ), ( 3/ 4, 6
13 a) b) c) d ) e) 1/ 4 ), (3 ), ( ) (4 ),, (5 ) 5. (1 ) 1), 2),, 3),, 4), 5),, (2 ) 7
1), 2),, 3),, 4),, 5),,,, 6.,, 13 1. ; 2.,,, : (1 ) (2 ) ( ) 14 3.,, ( ),,,,,,,, : ( ), 35 mm,,,,,,,,, ( ), ;, ( ),,,,, 8
14 a) b ) c) d),,,, ;,,,,,,,,,,,,,, ; ( ),,,,, 1., 6 mm 10 mm ( 45),,,,,,,, ( ), ( ),,,,,,, 9
2., 15a, 15 a) b ) c) d) (1 ) 15a,,,, D d 1. 0 mm, ( D 2. 5 d 2 ) ; 1. 0 mm, ( D 2. 3 2. 4 d 1. 9 ), (2 ),, l, 15b : 1. 0 mm, 78 ; 1. 0 mm 2. 0 mm, 57 ; 2. 0 mm, 45 : 1. 0 mm, 2. 5 2. 8 ; 1. 0 mm 2. 0 mm, 2. 83. 3 ; 2. 0 mm 2. 5 mm, 3. 33. 5 10
(3 ),, 15c, 15d 3. (1 ) (2 ),, (3 ), 1984 2,, 1. 16 16 m 1 = 1 000 cm 1 = 10 mm 1 = 1 000 m 1 = 10-3 n m 1 = 10-6 2. 17 17 kg g m g 1 = 1 000 1 = 5 1 = 1 000 1 = 0. 2 1 = 31. 103 5 1 = 37. 429 1 = 31. 25 11
1. ( ),,,,, 2. (1 ),,,,, (2 ) 1),, 2), 3),,,, 3. (1 ) (2 ),,, (3 ),,,, (4 ) 1) ( ),,, 10 mg 2) 10 mg, ; 10990 mg ( )1100 g,, 3),, 12
, (5 ), ;, 1. ( ) ( ) 5, 16 ; ; ; ; ( ),, 17 16 17 100 mm, 125 mm, 150 mm, 200 mm, 250 mm, 300 mm, 350 mm, 400 mm 450 mm 2. : 1 : 2. 300. 83 mm, 2 : 0. 770. 42 mm, 3 : 0. 330. 25 mm, 4 : 0. 250. 20 mm, 5 : 0. 200. 16 mm, ( ) 1 7, 300 mm 300 mm, 13
3.,,,, 1. (1 ),,,, 18a, 18b 1),,, 2), 3),, (2 ) 19a,,,, (3 ) 19b,, 18 a) b ) 19 a) b) 2., : (1 ),,, 510 mm, 110a (2 ),, 110b,,, 14
(3 ),,, 1 10c (4 ), 110d 110 a ) b) c) d ) 3. (1 ),,,,,,,,, 1 11a, ( ),,,,,, (2 ) 111b,,,, 111 a) b) 15
, 4. ( ) (1 ), 112 (2 ), ( ), 113,, 12 mm 112 113 (3 ) 1),, 2) (),,,, 5. (1 ),, ( ), 114, ( ) ( ), ;,, 114a,, 114b ( ),,, ( ), (2 ) 90,,, 115a, (3 ),,, 115 b (4 ) 1) ;,, 116 2),, 16
114 115 a) b ) 116 a) b) 117 l,, L l d : (5 ) L = l + d 1 - tan 2, (11) 17
,, 118,,,,, 117 1 2 3 4 118 18
( ) : 1.,, ( ) ( ) (1 ) ( ) ( 2H 2B ) ( 11 ),, (2 ) ( ) ( 0. 10 mm, 0. 13 mm, 0. 15 mm, 0. 18 mm),,,,,,, (3 ),,,,,, (4 ), ( 45, 45, 90 ), (30, 60, 90 ),, (5 ) 19
,, (6 ),,, (7 ),, (8 ),,,,, 3B,,, (9 ),,,,,, (10),,, 2. K,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,, (1 ), 21 (2 ), 22 (3 ), 23 3. ( 11 ),,,,,,,,, ; (1 ), 24 (2 ), 25 20
21 a ) b) 22 a ) b) (3 ), 26 21
23 a) b ) 24 22
25,, ;,, ( ), 4.,, 23
26,,, (1 ),,,,,,, 27 24
(2 ),, ( ), (),,,, 28 27 28 (3 ) 29 ; 210 ; 211,,, 212,,,,, 213, 214, 215 5.,,,,,, 216 6.,, ; (1 ) :, (2 ),, :,,, 25
29 (3 ),,,,, :,, 217,, 218,, 26
210 a) b ) 211 212 1. (1 ),,, 27
213 a) b) 214 a) b),,,,,,, ( ), (2 ),,,,, ;,,,,,,,,,, 2.,,,,, 28
215 a) b ) 216 219 ; 220 1. ( ) (1 ) 1),, 29
2),,, (2 ) ; ; (3 ), 1), 217,,,, ; ;, ;,,,, 221 218 2),,,,,,,, 30
219 a) b ) c) 220, 222a 222b 31
221, 3),,,,,,,,,, 223a 223bc,,, 32
222 a) b) 33
223 a) b) c), 2. ( ) (1 ), ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ),, 224 1) 2) 3) 4) 5) 6) (2 ), 225 (3 ), 226 (4 ), 227 (5 ), 228 (6 ), 229 34
224 225 a) (,, ) b ) (,, ) c) ( ) d ) ( ) 226 a) b) c) d ) 227 1 2 3 35
228 a) b) c) 1 2 3 4 229,,,,,, 1., ;, ;, 36
21 21 ( ) % : : 2.,, ;,, 22 22 : ( ) % 3., 37
, 23 23 : ( ) % 4., 24 24 % : :,,, ;,, ;,,, 1.,,, 38
,,,,,,, K K ; Pt950 Pt900; 925,,,, K, ; 925 Pt900, ; 14K 18K,,,,,, : mm ( ) cm ( ),, 2. 3.,,,,, ; 18K, 18K,, ;, ; ( ),, 5 cm, 3, 20, 5320 = 300 (cm),, 2%, 306 cm,, ( ), 2% 5%,,,, 4. 230 18K : 18K,, 5 g : 11. 5 mm15 mm, 16, 3 mm : 1. 1 mm, 2. 2 mm, 0. 40 mm, 230 18K 0. 40 mm, 0. 60 mm, 18K, (1 ), 18K 39
(2 ), 18K (3 ), 16, (4 ), 1. 1 mm, 2. 2 mm, 0. 40 mm, 0. 40 mm, 0. 60 mm (5 ), (6 ), : 1 ( )1 1 4 ( ) 18K (7 ),,,,,, ( ),,,,,, ;, 1.,,, :,,, 2. (1 ) (2 ), (3 ), (4 ) (5 ) (6 ),, (7 ), 3. (1 ),, 40
,, (, ), 231 (2 ),, 232 (3 ), ( ),,, 233 (4 ), (, ),, 234 231 232 233 234 41
( ) :, 1. Pt, 21. 45, 1 772, 4. 3,,,,,,, 10 t 1 oz ( ) (1 oz 28 g), 10 80 t, 1 000 t, 10 000 t 2. Au, 19. 32, 1 063, 2. 5,, 1 g 25 km, 810-5 mm 2,,,, ( ),, ( ), 3. Ag, 10. 49, 962, 2. 7,,, 0. 002 5 mm,,, ( ),,, 4. Pd, 12. 16, 1 553, 4. 8,,,,,, 5. 42
Rh, 12. 41, 1 966, 5. 5,,,,,, 6. K K K K : 24 K ( 100% ), 1 K 4. 166%,, K ( WG, ), K K, K 8 K, 22 K 18 K 14 K 7.,,,, 925, 9, ( ) 1. (1 ),,, ( ),,, ( ),, (2 ),, 10 cm, 10 cm10 cm,,, (3 ),, ;,,, (4 ),,,, 2.,,,,,, ;,,,, ;,,,,,, 43
, ;,,,,,, ;, ;,, 14 K,,,, (,, ) ; 14 K,, :,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,, ( ),, 3. (1 ), ;,, :,,,,,,,,, :,,,,,, (2 ), :, () ;, (, ),,,,, :, 31 ( ),,, (3 ) :, 44
;,,,,,, ( ) ;,,,,,,,, 32 31 32 4. (1 ), 4 :,,, 90 :,, A V 33 (2 ), :,,,, :,, ;,, 34 33 34 45
,, ( ),,, :,,, 1. ( ), ( ),,, 2.,, ;, ;,,,,,,,,, 1. (1 ),, (2 ), (3 ),,, 2. (1 ) ( ) ( ) (2 ) ( ),,,,, 46
(3 ), ;,,,,,,,,, 35 35 (4 ),,,,, 3. (1 ) ( ) (2 ) ( ),, (3 ), 1 mm,, 36 (4 ), (, ),, ( ),, 37 (5 ),, 36 1 mm 37,,,, 1.,,,,, ;, 2. (1 ) 47
( ), ( ), 15 min, ( ) 4, 38,,, 39,,,,, (2 ), :,,, ( 4 ),, 310,,,,,,,,, 38 4 39 310 3. (1 ),,,,,,, ( ),,, (2 ) 4. (1 ),,,, :,,,, 311,,,, 48
(2 ), ( ),,,, 312,,,,, 311 312 5.,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,, 1. (1 ),,,,, (2 ),,,, :, 313,,,, 49
,,, 313 (3 ), (, ),,,,, 2. (1 ),,,,,,,,, (2 ),,,,,, V, U ;, (3 ), :,,, ;,,,,,,,,,,,,,,, 3. ( 314 ) ( 315 ),, 50
, 314 315 (1 ) (2 ) 1), ( ), 2), 3),,,,,,,,,,, (3 ) 1), ;, 2) ( ) ;, 3) ;,,, 4. :, 316 :, 317 : :, 318 :,,, 319 51
316 317 318 319,,, ( ),,,,,,,, 1. (1 ),,,,, 320 (2 ),,,,,,,,, 360,,,, 321 ; 180, 320, 322 52
,,, ;,,, 321 322 2. (1 ),,,,,,,,,,,, 323 323 (2 ),,,,,,,, ( ),,,,,, 3. (1 ),,,, 324 (2 ),,,,,,,,,, 53
, 4. (1 ),, 325 324 325 (2 ),,,,,,,,,, ( 325 ),, 1.,,, ( ),,,,,, (1 ) ( ), ( 0. 61 mm ),, 326 (2 ) (, ), ( ),, 327,, (3 ),,, 328 54
(4 ),, ( ),, 329, 326 327 328 329 2.,,,,,,,,,,, : (1 ),,,, (2 ) 330, : 331, :,,, 330, 331 330, 331,, (3 ) 330 :,,,,, 55
330 331,,,, ( 331 ),,,, 3.,,,,,,,, : (1 ) 332 333,,, (2 ) 332 : ; 333 :, 332 333,,,,, 332 333 (3 ) 332,,,,, 56
333,,, ( ) 4.,,, ( 334 335 ),,,, 334 335 :,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,, ( 334 ),,,,,, ( 335) ( 334 ), ; ( 3 35 ),,,, 57
, : ; : 1.,,, ;,,,,,, 15 mm,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,, 2.,,,, ( ),,,,,,,,,,, ( ) ( ) ; ;,,, 58
,,,,, ; ;, ;,,,,,,,,,,, 3.,, :,,,,, 4.,,,, ; ; ; :,, 1., (,, ) 2.,, 4 mm, 3. 7 mm, 5 mm, 336, : 0. 20. 4 mm,, ( ) 336,, 3 37,,, 338,, 3.,, 59
,,, 34 3, ; 4,,,, 339 337 338 339 a) b) 4. : (1 ),,, ;,,, (2 ),, (3 ),,, ;,,, (4 ), 1.,,,, ( ) 2.,,, 0. 51 mm, 13 mm,, ( ),, 0. 4 mm, 23 mm, 340, ( 341 ),, 3.,,,, 342,,,,, 60
, 343 340 1 2 341 1 2 342 343 4. : (1 ),,,, ;,,,, (2 ),,, (3 ),,,,, 1., 2. :, 0. 80 mm, 25 mm, ( ),,, 344 61
: ( ),, 12 mm 23 mm,,, 345,, V,,, 346,,,,, 347 344 345 :, 348 3.,,,,,, 349, ( ),, 346 V 347 348 349 4. : (1 ),, ;, (2 ),,, ( ) (3 ),,, ;, 62
1.,,, ;, (, ),,,,, ;,,,, ;, O,,,, ( ) ;,, Y, I ;,,,, 2., : (1 ) = 3. 14 (31) (2 ),,,,, 350, 350,,,,, (3 ) 1), ( V ),,,,,,,,,,, 2), 63
( H ),,,, ( ),,,,,,,, 3. Y,, : (1 ) ( 31 ) (2 ),,,,,,,,,,,, (3 ) 1),,,, 351 Y,,, 352,,,,,,,,,,, 351 352 2),,, ( ) Y,,,,, ( 64
),,,,,,, 4. : (1 ),,, 90,,, 353, (2 ) 353 ( 31 ),, (3 ), 1/ 3 1/ 3, 90, 1/ 3, ( ),, (4 ), 1/ 3, ; ( ),,,,, ( ),,,,,,, 5. : (1 ) ( 31 ),, (2 ) ( 354 ),,, 8 mm, 3. 1481/ 4 = 6. 28 ( mm ), 6. 28 mm (3 ),, 65
Y,, Y,,,,,,,,,,,, 354 6. ( ),,,,,, 135,, 828 31 31 ( mm ) ( mm ) ( mm) ( mm ) ( mm ) 1 12. 3 2 12. 65 3 13 4 13. 35 5 13. 7 6 14 7 14. 4 8 14. 75 15 17. 15 22 19. 55 9 15. 1 16 17. 5 23 19. 9 10 15. 45 17 17. 85 24 20. 25 11 15. 8 18 18. 2 25 20. 6 12 16. 1 19 18. 55 26 20. 95 13 16. 45 20 18. 9 27 21. 2 14 16. 8 21 19. 2 28 21. 55 29 21. 9 30 22. 25 31 22. 6 32 22. 95 33 23. 3 34 23. 65 35 24 66
( ),, 65 mm, 5 mm, 2. 5 mm, ( 41 ), ( 42 ), ( 43 ),,,, ( ),,,,, ( 44 ) 15 mm,,,,,,,,,,,,, 1 cm,, 3. 5 mm ( 45 ), 3 mm, 68 mm, 2. 2 mm, ( 46 ),,,, 67
41 42 43 44,,,,,,,,,, 3. 5 mm,,,,,, 1. 5 mm,,,,,, 45 46 ( 47 ), 2. 2 mm 68
2. 2 mm, 38 mm, 48 1. 2 mm, 5 mm, 49,,, 47, 410 50 mm,,,, :, (, ),, 411,,,,,,,,,,,, ( 47 ) 48 49 410 411,,,,,, 69
,,,,,,, 120200 mm,,,, 412 412 a ) b) 1 2 3 4,,,,,,, :,,,, 413 413 a) b ) c) d) e) 70
1.,,,,, 414 2.,,,, 415 414,, 416,, 417 415 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8,,, 4 18 416 417 418,,,, 419 3.,,,,, 420 71
,,,, 421,,,, 419,,,,,, 420 421 72
() :, 1. (1 ) 2. 11%, 1),,,, 0. 80 % 0. 50 % 2) 0. 25 % ; 0. 25% 0. 60% ; 0. 60 % 3), 4) (2 ), ; 73
1) T, Mn, A : T8Mn, 51 T10A, 52 51 T8Mn 52 T10 A 2) (, ) : 1. 50 %,, ; 1. 50 % 2. 49%, 2. 50% 3. 49%, 22. 50% 23. 49 %, 2, 3, 23, A : 60Si2MnA, 53 53 60Si2Mn A 2.,, 0. 25%,,, ; ; 0. 60%,,,,,,,,,,, :,, 74
; ;, ( ),, ) 1. (1 ),,,,,,, 54 (2 ) ( 54 1 2, 45 T7, T10 (3 ), 55, 2. 8 mm 3 mm,, 55 2. (1 ), ( ), 56,,, (2 ) 75
56 a) b ) 1 2 3 4 5, ; T7 (3 ), : 1) ( 295310 ) mm 7 mm3. 5 mm,, 90, 92 2) 130 mm9. 5 mm3. 5 mm,,, ;,,, 3) ( ), 4) 5) 57 57 a) b ) 1. (1 ),,, ( ) ( 58a ), 76
(2 ),,,,, 58b : T7, 6070 mm,,, 58c,,, 58b, (3 ) ( ) 1), 2), 3), 58c 4), 58 a) b ) c) 2. (1 ) ( 59 ),, 59 a) b), 510a,, 510b,, 77
510 a) b) (2 ),, : 1 ) 70 mm, 4 mm4 mm T8 T8A, 2) 2535 mm 3) 59b,, 4), 5),, ;,, 1. (1 ),,,, 511a 3545,,, 511b,,, (2 ) 1) T7, T7A, 80 mm40 mm40 mm 2), 45 mm,,, ( 512) 3) ( ) 4), 2. 78
511 a) b ) 512 (1 ),, 1),, 2),, 3) 513 513 a ) ( ) b) ( ) c) ( ) d) ( ) (2 ) 514 : 79
1) 45 T7, T7A 2) ( ) ( : D = 512 mm ), 3), L 6070 mm 4), 3. (1 ), 515 514 a) b ) c) 515,,, (2 ),,,,,, 51 : 1) T7 T7A 2) 3) 4) 5) () 80
51 mm 1. 5 2. 0 2. 1 2. 5 2. 6 3. 2 1. (1 ), : 1),,, ( ) 46 mm 60 mm, 516a 516 a) b ) c) 1 2 3 4 2), 110 mm, : 00. 8 mm 2. 33. 2 mm 516b 3) 81
68, 6 153 mm50 mm10 mm, 8 203 mm50 mm10 mm,,, 516c (2 ),, 517a, : (, ),, ; :, 517 a) b ) : 1 ) 3/ 5, ( 45 ),,,,,,, 517b 2), 35,,,,,,, ( ),,,, 3) (0. 01 ),,,, :,, 4) ( ), 45 ;,,, 3843 2. 82
(1 ), T7, T7A,, 518a,, (2 ),, ( 518b ), ;, 518 : 1), 518c T7, 2 mm 2. 8 mm, 70 mm,, 710 mm, 1 mm 1. 5 mm,,,,, 2) ( ),, ; ; ( ) 1.,, : 83
(1 ) 1) ( ),,, 2),, 3), ; ;, 4), 5) GB/ T 118872002,,, (2 ),, ;,, 2.,,, (1 ) 1),, :,, 519a ;, 519 b ;, 519c 519 a) b) ( ) c) ( ) 2),, ( ) 3),, 4) 84
, 52 ( ) 53 ( ) 52 ( ), 53 ( ) (2 ) ( ) 1) 48, 1. 0 mm 46, 4 ;, 1. 0 mm 68, 8 2),,, D d,, ;,, (3 ),, ( ), 85
,,,,,,,,, K,,, ( 6070 cm),,,, 1. (1 ) ( 520a ),,, 520 a) b ) c) d) (2 ), : 1), 6 mm 10 mm ( 45), 2) ( D d ) 1. 0 mm ( D 2. 5, d 2 ) ; 1. 0 mm, ( D 2. 3, d 1. 9 ), 3) 1. 0 mm, 78 ; 1. 0 mm 2. 0 mm, 57 ; 2. 0 mm, 45 1. 0 mm 2. 0 mm, 2. 83. 3 ; 2. 0 mm 2. 5 mm, 3. 33. 5 4), 45 5),,, 86
2. (1 ), 520b,,,,, (2 ),, : 1), 6 mm 8 mm ( 45), 2) ( D d ) 0. 7 mm, D 3. 29, d 1. 71, ( ), 3),, 3. (1 ), 520c,,,,,,, (2 ) 1) : = K 2 (51) K ( K 3,, K 3) 2) 4. (1 ) 520d,,, ( ),,, 521e 521, (2 ) 1) ( ) L,, 521a 2) D,, 521b, c 3) ( ), d 87
521 a) b) c) d) e), 521d 45,, (3 ) ( W1 ) 1) ( h) : d ( cm) ;, 3. 1416; h = ( d + 2 r1 )n ( cm) (52) n,, n 1318 ; r1 (cm) 2) ( V ) : 2 V = r1 3) ( W1 ) : h (cm 3 ) (53) W1 = V ( g) (54) ( g/ cm 3 ) (4 ) ( W2 ) 1) ( l) : D (cm) l = 2) ( L) : 3) ( W2 ) : D - d 2 l = n n (cm ) (55) (56) L = 2D + 4 l ( cm) (57) 88
W2 2 = r2 r2 (cm) (5 ) ( W ) (6 ) 1) : L ( g) (58) W = W1 + W2 ( g) (59) = 2 + 1 2 D + l ( 510) 2) ( ) : = - ( 2) 3) : = 4) = ( 511) ( 512) ( 513),,,, 1. 8) (7 ) 1),, 1 ( 1. 3 2),, 522 (522 480 mm, 2090 g, ), 522 3),, 523 (523 480 mm, 2090 g, ) 89
, d 1. 8 mm 3. 5 mm, d, 523 d 51 70 g, 480 mm, (1 ) 1), n = 16 () 2) 522, 70 g, 0. 06 cm 3) 523, 70 g, d = 0. 30 cm (2 ) W1 1) ( h) : h = ( d + 2 r1 )n = ( 0. 30 + 0. 06 ) 3. 141 6 16 = 18. 095 6 (cm ) 2) ( V ) : V = r1 2 h = 3. 141 6 0. 03 2 18. 095 6 = 0. 051 2( cm 3 ) 3) ( W1 ) : = 19. 3 g/ cm 3 W1 = V = 0. 051 2 19. 3 = 0. 987 5 ( g) (3 ) ( W2 ) : 1) 521d, D, D = 2 + d = 0. 06 2 + 0. 30 = 0. 42 (cm ) 90
2) ( l) : l = n = 0. 06 16 = 0. 96( cm) 3) ( L) : L = 2D + 4 L = 2 3. 141 6 0. 42 + 4 0. 96 = 6. 478 9( cm) 4) 11. 45 = 1. 45 = 0. 06 1. 45 = 0. 087( cm) 5) ( W2 ) : W2 = r2 2 L = 3. 141 6 0. 043 5 2 6. 478 9 19. 3 = 0. 743 3( g) (4 ) ( W ) : (5 ) 1) : W = W1 + W2 = 0. 987 5 + 0. 743 3 = 1. 73 ( g) = 2 + 1 2 D + l = 0. 087 2 + 1 2 0. 42 + 0. 96 2) : = 1. 344 (cm) = - ( 2) = 1. 344-0. 087 2 = 1. 17 (cm ) 3) 48 cm, 2. 1 cm, 45. 9 cm = = 45. 9 1. 17 39 () 4) 70 g, 2. 8 g, 67. 2 g 91
= = 67. 2 1. 73 39 (),, n : 1) 70 g, 480 mm 39 2) 1. 73 g, 13. 44 mm 3) 0. 60 mm, 3. 00 mm 4) 0. 87 mm, 4. 20 mm 1.,,,,, 524 524,,, 2. ( ) ( 525 ), 152 mm ( 6 )203 mm (8 )254 mm ( 10 ) ;, 140 mm 180 mm 55 mm, 55 mm 3.,, 00 8 92
525, 00 ( ), 8 ( ), 54 3 4 ( ) 54 5. 5 8. 7 8. 712. 6 11. 8 16. 5 19. 7 26. 8 27. 5 47. 2 ( ) 55 60,,,, :,,, 1.,, ; 93
,,,,,,, 2.,,,, ; ; ; 3. (1 ),, (2 ) (3 ), (4 ), (5 ), 1.,,, 526a, 130133 mm, 2528 mm, 4/ 0 3/ 0 ( ) 55 11 526b 55 ( mm ) ( mm ) ( mm ) ( mm ) 8/ 0 0. 160 0. 320 1 0. 305 0. 610 7/ 0 0. 170 0. 330 2 0. 340 0. 701 6/ 0 0. 178 0. 356 3 0. 356 0. 737 5/ 0 0. 203 0. 399 4 0. 381 0. 780 4/ 0 0. 218 0. 445 5 0. 401 0. 841 3/ 0 0. 241 0. 483 6 0. 439 0. 940 2/ 0 0. 330 0. 518 7 0. 480 1. 016 0 0. 279 0. 584 8 0. 500 1. 118 2., : 4/ 0, 3/ 0, 2/ 0 ;, : 8/ 0, 7/ 0, 6/ 0, 5/ 0, 4/ 0, 3/ 0, 2/ 0, 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6;, : 8/ 0, 6/ 0, 5/ 0, 4/ 0, 3/ 0, 2/ 0, 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 8 94
526 ( ) a) b ) 11 10, 12,, 1. (1 ),,,,,,,,, 527,,,,,,, (2 ) ( 528a ) ( 528 b ), ;,,,,, 528c (3 ),,,,,,,, 2.,,,, ( 529a ),,,, 529b,,,,, 95
527 528 a) b ) c) 529 a) b ) 3.,,,,,,, 96
( ) :,,,, 1.,,,, ( ) ( ) (1 ), (2 ),, (3 ) (4 ), (5 ),,, (6 ), (7 ) 97
,,, (8 ),,, (9 ),,, 2. (1 ),,,, (2 ), (3 ), (4 ),, (5 ),,,, (6 ),,,,, (7 ),,,,,, 3.,,,, (, ),,,, ( ),, 98
(1 ),, 61, 62, 63, 64,, P,, 65 66 67, ; 68,,,,, 61 62 63 64 65 66 67 ( ) 68 (2 ) ( ),, 69 45,, x1, x2 45610,,, x1, x2, x3 (3 ) ;, 99
69 45 610 1) ( 6 11 ),, 612,,, 613,,, A B,, ; CD,,,, 614,,, 615,,, 611 612 613 100
, 613 ; 613 614 615 2),, 6 16 617,, V 618,, 616 617 618 ( 619 620 ), 4. 101
619 620,,,,,, ( ), ( ),,,,,,,,,, ;,,, 5.,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,, 6.,,, 102
,,,,,,, : ; ;,,, ; ;, 7.,,,,,,, ;, ;,,,,,, 1.,,,,,,,,?,,, : (1 ),,,, ;,,,,,, 11,,,,,,, (2 ),, :,,,? 103
,,,?,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,, (3 ),,,,,,,,,,,, ;,,,, ( ), ( ),,,,,,, 2.,, : ( ), : 11,,, (, ), ( 621 ) ; 11, ( 622 ) 11,, ( ),, ( ), (),,,,,, ( ),,,, 104
621 622 1.,,,, ( ),, 623, : ; ; ;,?,,, :,,, ;,,,, (1 ) 624,, ( 625 ), ( 626 ) ( 627 ) ( ),, (2 ) 628,,,, ( 629 ) 105
623 624 625 626 627,,,,, 628 629 2.,, (1 ),,,, (2 ),,, 106
( 11 ), (3 ),,,,,,,,, ( ),,,,,,,,,,,,,, 1.,,,,,,,,,,, 630,,,,, 631 630,,,,,,,,,,,,, 632 633,,,, (),,, 634 107
630 () 631 ( ) 632 ( ) 634 ( ) 633 ( ) 2., 635,,,,, 636 637,, 108
635 (), ;,, 636 ( ) 637 ( ),,, 638 639,,, ;,,, 109
638 3 639 3 000,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,, 50%, 1%,,,,,,,,,,,, 110
,,,,,, ;,,,, 1., 10, 3. 521, 2. 417, 0. 044 1 1001 625, 5380 M Pa 80%, 20%, 20 % 5, 1, 250 2.,, 7. 58, 2. 672. 75, 1. 5651. 599, 0. 014, 16,, 0. 20. 3, 0. 5,,, 3.,, 9, 3. 954. 05, 1. 762 1. 770, 0. 018,,,, ;, 4.,, 9, 3. 954. 05, 1. 7621. 770, 0. 018,,,, ( ) 5., 7. 58, 2. 672. 75, 1. 565 1. 599, 0. 014,, 20 243, 19, 16,,,, 6., 6. 5 7, 3. 30 3. 38, 1. 66 1. 68,,,,,, 111
7., 8. 5, 3. 713. 75, 1. 7461. 755, 0. 015,,,,,,,,, ;,,,, 8., 2. 54, 2. 612. 78, 1. 531. 686,, ; ; :, ;, ;, ;, :, 9., 6. 57, 3. 273. 48, 1. 654 1. 690, 0. 020, Zabargad, 310, 10., 56. 5, 2. 152. 23, 1. 371. 47, :,, 90% 95% 11., 77. 5, 4. 64. 8, 1. 782. 01, 0. 038,, 12., 7, 2. 56 2. 66, 1. 5441. 553, 0. 013,, 33 ( 1 = 0. 304 8 m ), 5. 5, 35 t, 13., 7, 2. 612. 65, 1. 541. 55, :, 112
, ; ; 14.,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,, ( ) ; ( ),,, :, 1.,, (1 ),,, 15, 4 mm, 1 mm,? 15 17. 3 mm, 17. 33. 141 6 = 54. 35 ( mm ), 54. 35 mm,,, ;, 2, 54. 35 + 1 ( ) 2 = 56. 35 ( mm ) (2 ),, ( ),, 5 mm, 50 mm 60 mm, 1. 5 mm 2 mm,,, 0. 5 mm (3 ),,, ( ) 1. 5 mm 2 mm, 1. 4 mm 1. 9 mm 0. 1 mm?,,, ( ) 1. 5 mm, ( ), 0. 2 mm 0. 3 mm,,, 113
(4 ),,,,,, 45 cm, 50 cm,,, ;,,,,, 1 mm ( ), 50 cm,, 30%, 2., ( ), (1 ),,,,, 7 mm9 mm, 0. 8 mm,,, 14 mm19 mm, 1 mm,,, 0. 8 mm (2 ),,,,,, 4 cm 2, 1 mm; 2 cm 2, 0. 7 mm; 4 cm 2,, 5 mm,,,, 18K,, (3 ),,, ( ) ( ) ( ), 2 mm,,,,, 1.,,, 114
,,,,, ( ),,,,,,,,,,,, 19, 20,,,, ( ) ( ),, 2. (1 ),, ; ( ) ;, 1) ( 10 ), 7 ; 7. 58, 2. 4, 1. 541. 55, 2. 15,, ( ),,, 2. 4, 2) 9, 6. 58, 7. 58. 5,,, 10, ( ), 3) 1. 76, 1. 60 3. 994, 2. 7,,, 4) 115
3, 2. 71 1. 57, 1. 55 1. 821. 89 5),,,, 10, ( ),,,,,,,, ;,,, ; (2 ),,,, 61, 61 ( ) ( ) 116
( ) :,,,,,,,, 1. 3. 14 (71) 2. (1 ) S S = R 2 (72) S ; R (2 ) C 2 C = 2R (73) ( 3), ( ) W = R 2 h (74) W; h; (4 ) 117
D = C/ (75) 1. ( ) 2.,,,,,, 3.,,,,,,,,,,,, ( 925 ) 18 K 14 K,,,, :,,,,,,,,, 1.,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,, 118
2.,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,, 3., 99. 9%,,,,,,,,,,, ;,,,,,,, 1., ( ),, (1 ),,,, ;,, (2 ),,,, : 1),,,,, 2),, 71, 71 1 2, 119
3), 2. (1 ),,,, ; ;,,,,,,,,,, (2 ),,,,,,,,,,, (3 ),,,,,, : ;, ;,,,,,,, 3. (1 ), ( ) (, ),, (2 ) ( ),,,, (3 ),,,, 2 cm (4 ), 20 min ( ),,,,, (, ) (5 ),,,,, 72, 120
,,, (6 ),,, 72, (7 ),,, ( ) 1. () ( ),,,,, ( ) 400,,,, 2. () ( ),, ( ) : ( ) ( ) ( ) : (1 ),,,, ( ),, 13, ;, 2530, (2 ) ( ),,,, ( ),,, (3 ),,, (4 ),,, ( ),,,,,, 1. 121
,,,, :,,,,,,,,, ;,,,,,,,,,,, :,,,, ( ),,,,,,,,, :,,,, (1 ), ;, ;,,, 73, 73,,,, ( ),, (2 ),, :,,,, ;,,,, ( ),,,,, 122
,,,,,,,,, ;, ;,,,,,, 74, 75, 76,,, ( 77 ),,, 74 75 76 77 2.,,,,,, (1 ),,,,,,,,,, 78,, 79, :, 710 ;,,,, ;,, (2 ),,,,,,,,, 123
78 79 a) b) 710 ( 711 ),,, (, ),,,,,,,,,,,, ( 712 ),,,,, 711 712 1.,,,,,, ;,, ;,,,,, ( ),,,,, 124
(1 ) :, ( ),,,,,,,,,,,,, 713,,,, (2 ) :, ( ), 714,,,,,,,, 2., ( ) :, ( ):, ( ), (, ),,,,,,,,,,,,,,, 715 713 1 2 714 1 2 3 715 1 2 3 125
1. ( ),,,,,,,, (1 ),,, ( ) 2/ 5,,,, (),,,,,,, (2 ) ( ) 1/ 10,,,, ( ),,,,,,,,,,,,,, 716 2.,,,,,, ;,,,, 717,,, 10 cm10 cm, 1 cm, 10 cm10 cm, () 1 cm 126
716 1 2 3 717 1 2, ( ), ( ) : ( ),,,, ( ), ( ), ( ),, 0. 5 mm, 5 mm, 3 mm 2,,,,,,,,,, 3.,,,,,, ( ), ( ), 0. 60. 7 mm,,,, (,, ) ;,, (),,,, ;,,,,,,,,,,, 127
,, ( ) () ( ),, 1. 718,,,,, : ( ),,,,,,,, 2. 719 720 :,,,,, (, ),, :,, ;,,,,, 718 1 2 719 ( ) 1 2 3 4 720 ( ) 1 2 3 4 3. 721, :,,,,, 721,, 1 2 3 128
1., 10,, 14,,,,,, 17,,,,,,,,,,,, ;,,,,, ;, ; 2.,,,,,,, (1 ),, ;,, (2 ),,, (3 ),,,,, (4 ) 129
, (5 ),,,, (6 ),,,, 1.,,,,,,,,, (1 ) 1),, 722,,, 2),,, 0. 20. 3 mm, ( 12 mm ),, 723 724 3),,,,, 725, (, ),, 722 a) b ) c) d) 723 724 130
4),,,,,,, ( 120 ),, 726 725 726 5),, ( ),,,,,, (2 ) 1),,,,, ;,, 2),,, 3),,,, 2.,, (1 ) 1),,, :,, 727, 728, 729, 730 2), 131
727 728 729 730 3),,,,, 7 31,, 732,,,,, 733, 731 ( ) 732 733 4) 5),, ( 731 ), () 734,, 735 736,, 734 735 () 736 6) (2 ),,,,,,, ;, ;,, 132
,,,,,, ;, ;, 1.,,,,, ( 737 ), ( 738 ), ( 739 ),,,,, 739,,, 737 738 739,,,,,, 740,,,, :,,,,,,, 740a d,,,, 740 133
,, (1 ) 741 742 741, 742,, 743, ( ),,,, 741 742 743 1 2 3 ( 2) 744 745, 744, 745,,,,, 745,,, 744 745 (3 ), : 746,,,,, 747,,,,, 746 747,,, ; 134
, 746 () 747 () (4 ), 748 7 49,,,, 748 749 :,,,,,,,,, :,,,,,,, 2.,, :, ; :, ; :,,,, :,,,,, (1 ),,, ;, ; 135
,,,,,,,,,,,,,,, ;,,,,,, (2 ),,,,, :,,,,, ( 750 ) ( ), ( 751 ),,,,,,,,,,,, 750 751 ( ) (3 ),,,,,,,,,,, 3. 136
(1 ),,,,,,,, (2 ),,, 752,,, 752, ( ),, (3 ),,,,,,,,, 137
,,,,, 1.,,,, 81,,,,,,,, 2.,, 82,,,, 81 82 a) b ) 1.,,,,,,, 138
, 83 83 a) b) c) d ) e) 139
: 0. 60. 7 mm (),, ( 83a ), ( 83b ),, ( 83c ), ( 83d ), ( 83e ),,, 10 2.,, 84 84,, ;,, ;,,,,,,,, 85a,, 85b,,,,,,,, 85 a) b ) 140
1., :,,,,,,,, ;,, ;,,, 23 cm,, 86 2., 15 min,,,,,,,, 87 86 1 2 3 4 5 6 87 1 2,,,, 88 88 a) b ),,,,,,,,,, 3. 141
,,,,, :, ; (,, ), 89,, 89 a) b ) c) 1.,,,,, 2.,,,,,, 810,,, 1 2 3 4 5 6,, 810,, 3.,, ( 811a ),, ( : ),, ( 8 11 b ),,, 8 11 4. 142
811 a ) b ),,,,, 1 cm,,,, ( :,, ),,,,,,,, 812, 812 23 cm, 1 2 3 4 5 6 7,,,,,, 813 813 a) b ) 1 2 3 4 5.,,, 143
,,,,,,, 814,,,, 814 1.,,,,,,,, : 6 mm,, 815 815 a) b),,,,,,,,,, 2. ( 816a ), ( 816 b ),,,,,,, 816d,,,,,,,,,, 3. 144
816 a) b) c) d),,, : :,,, 817 817 a) b) c) d ) e) 145
4. ( ), :,,, ( 818 ),,,,, 8 19 818 819 1 2 3 4 5 5.,,, :,,,,,,,,, 820 820 a) b ) 146
1.,,, (1 ),,,,,,, (2 ),,,, 821,,,, 822 821 1 2 3 4 5 822 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 2.,,,,,,,,,,, 1.,, 6070 m,,,,,, 23,, 10%,,,,, 147
,,,,, :,,,, 823 823 a) b) 1 2 3 4 5,,,, 824,, 825 824 1 2 3 4 5 6 2. (1 ),,,, 826 ;,,, :,,, 148
,,,,,,,, 825 1 2 826 (2 ),, :,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,, 827,, 827 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 1., 78,, 828 ; 23,, 829 149
828 1 2 829 1 2 2.,, : (1 ),,, (2 ),,,,,,, (3 ),,,,,,,,, 830 830 a) b ) 831 a) ( ) b) ( ), :, 150
,,,,, ;,,,,,, 8 31,,,,,,,,,,, 1.,,,,,, 2.,, 832,,,,, 11. 5 mm,,,,, 833 832 1 2 3 4 833 a ) b) 1 2 3 3., :,,,, 151
, 834 834 1 2 3 152
() :,,,, ( ) 1. (1 ) 1),, 2),,,,,, 3),, 91,,,,, 3 mm 4 mm, 92, 91 92 153
, 1520,,,, 93 94, 80 120 mm, 8 mm 12 mm, 4560,, 95,,,,, 93 94 95 4) () ( ), A B, S 96, S, A B C D,, EF,, 90, 97, AB C, A B, C r, A B DE, DE R ( R > r), F, CF, A B r, R, 96 97 98, AB C CD A B C,, C, CD 99, R, 3, 5, 6, 7, : 154
98 99 a. 99a, B, R E, F, E, F G b. E F, 3,, 99b c. EG, 7,, 99e d. EB ( 99a), E B, 6,, 99d e., G CG, H, CH ( 99a), 5,, 99c (2 ) 1) 11 ( ),, 2) ; :, 910a, 910b 3),,,,, 4),,,, 2. (1 ) 155
910 a) b ),, 1),, 911 3, 911a, 1 mm ; 911b, 2 mm ; 911c, 912 912a,, 34 mm 912b,, 10 mm,, 911 a) b ) c) 912 a) b) 2), 913,,, 913a, 400 mm,, 9 13 b,,, 156
913 a) b) c) d ),,,, 913c ;, 913d,,,,, (2 ) :,,, ;,,, 914, 914a ; 9 14 b, 3. (1 ),, 4, 915, 46 : 1) L (), 157
914 a) b ) 915 a) b ) c) d) L = d/ 2 + 2. 35( d + s) (91) d( mm ) ; s( mm) 2),, 916ab c 916 3),,,,,, 916de 4),, 916f,, ;,,,, (2 ),, 917,,,,,,,,,,,, 917,,, 158
,,,,,, ;, 1.,, 918 918 2.,,, 3. (1 ) ( ) (2 ), (3 ), ( ), 1., 5 mm ;, 2 mm, 2. 159
,,,, 919a,,, 919b,, 919c, 919d 919 a) b) c) d) 3., 2/ 5, 920,,,, 920 a. b ) 4.,, 5 mm5 mm 6 mm 6 mm,,, 20 mm 160
1., : (1 ) (2 ) (3 ) (4 ) (5 ) (6 ) (7 ) (8 ) (9 ) 2. 91 91 ( mm ) Fig. 1 Fig. 3 Fig. 5 Fi g. 6 Fi g. 36 Fig. 38 Fig. 411 Fig. 414 Fig. 416 0. 30 003 0. 40 004 0. 50 005 0. 60 006 006 006 006 006 0. 70 007 007 007 007 007 007 0. 80 008 008 008 008 008 008 0. 09 009 009 009 009 009 009 009 1. 00 010 010 010 010 010 010 010 010 1. 10 011 011 011 161
( mm ) Fig. 1 Fig. 3 Fig. 5 Fi g. 6 Fi g. 36 Fig. 38 Fig. 411 Fig. 414 Fig. 416 1. 20 012 012 012 012 012 012 012 012 012 1. 30 013 013 013 1. 40 014 014 014 014 014 014 014 014 014 1. 50 015 015 015 1. 60 016 016 016 016 016 016 016 016 016 1. 70 017 017 017 1. 80 018 018 018 018 018 018 018 018 018 1. 90 019 019 2. 00 020 020 2. 10 021 021 021 021 021 021 021 021 021 2. 20 022 022 2. 30 023 023 023 023 023 023 023 023 023 2. 40 024 2. 50 025 025 025 025 025 025 025 025 025 2. 60 026 2. 70 027 027 027 027 027 027 027 027 027 2. 90 029 029 029 029 029 029 029 029 029 3. 10 031 031 031 031 031 031 031 031 3. 30 033 033 033 033 033 3. 50 035 035 035 035 035 3. 70 037 037 037 037 037 4. 00 040 040 040 040 040 040 4. 20 042 042 042 042 4. 50 045 045 045 045 045 045 4. 70 047 047 047 5. 00 050 050 050 050 050 050 050 : Fig 162
1.,,,,, 2. (1 ),,,,,, (2 ), (3 ), ; (4 ), 0. 5 mm, (5 ) ( ), (6 ),, (7 ), 1. ( ),,,,,,,,, ;,, 90,,, ; ;, 2. 163
( ) :, ; ; ; ; ; 1. ( ),, (1 ), ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ), ( )() ( )( ), ( ), 1),,,,,,, 2),, 3),, ; ; ;,,, ;, 4),, 164
, (2 ) ;, 101 1),,, 102 101 102 2),, 3),,, 4), ( )( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ), 103 103 5),, 104 (3 ),,, ( ), 165
105 104 105 1) 2),,,, 3), ( ), ( ) ;, ( ) ;, ( ), ( ) 4),, 5),, ( ) () ( ),,,,, 6),, 106 2., 107, :, ; ;,, ; ;, ; ; ; (1 ),,,,,,,,,,,,,, 108 166
106 107 108, ( 109 ),, 1010 (2 ),,,,, 1011 (3 ),, 1012 (4 ), 1013 ( ), 167
109 1010 1011 (5 ),, 1014,,, ; 168
1012 a) b ) 1013 a) b ) c) 1014 a) b), ;,, 1015,,, 169
,,,, 1016 1015 a) b ) c) 1016 (6 ),,,,,,, 1017, 1018,,,,,,,, 1019, 1020, 1017 1019 1020 1018 170
,, 1021 1022 1023 1021 1022 1023 (7 ), 10 12,,,, 1024,, 10 25 3., 2, 21 A ( 1026 ), 1 1027,,, ab, c, de, f 2 ( 1028 ),, 1 2 g, h ( 1029 ),, 3, 3 4 ( 1030 ), 171
1024 1025 172
1026 1027 1028 1029 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 8 9 1,,,, 1031 1030 1031,,,, A ( 1026 ), 1032 1033, 1 ( 1027 ),, 173
1032 1033,,, 1034 a, b,,,, 1026, 1027, 1028 1034, 1035, 1036, 1037,,, 1034 1035 1036 1037,, ( ), ( ),, 10 174
38 1039 1040 1038 1039 1040,,,,, 1041,,, 1042 1041,,,,,,,,,,,, 1042,,, 1042, ( ),,,,, 1043,,,,, ; 175
1041 1042 176
,, 1042, 1043 1043,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,, ;,,,, ;,, : 1.,,,,, 1044,, 3 177
, ; :,,,, : ( ) ; ;,, 2.,,, ;, 1044,, ; 2 7, 3.,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,, : 1. () ( ) 1045,, 4,,, 1. 2 mm,,,,, 1046,,,,, ( ) ;,,,,,, 178
1045 1046 2. (1 ), ;,,,,,,, (2 ), ( ),,,,, ( ),,,,,,, 1047,,,,,, 1047,,,,, 1048,, 179
, ; ( ),,,, ( ),,,,, 1049,, 1047 1 2 3 4 ; 5 6 7,,,,, 1048 1049,, ;,,, 1047,, 1050, 180
,,, ( ), 1050 ;,,,,,,, 1051,,, 19, 9,,,,,, ( ), ( ),,,,,, ;,, 1051, 1052,,,,,,,,, ( ) ;,,,,,, 1051 1052 181
,,, 1053,,,,,, S,,,,,, 1054,,,,,,, 1053 1054 1., ( ),,,,,,,,,,,,,,, 1055 1056,,,,, 182
,,, ( ),, ( ),, 1057,,,,,,,, 1055 1056 1057,,,,,,,,,,, 1058,, :,,,,,,,,,, 183
,,,,,,,,, 1059,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,, 1060 1058 1059 1060 2.,,,? :,,,,,,,, 184
, : ; ; (1 ) 1),,, : 1061, 3,,, 2, 1, 1 1062,, 1063,,, 1064,, 3, ( 7 ) 1061 1062 1063 1064 185
1065, 3,, 3, 2 1066, 3,, 3, 2 2),,, : 1065 1066 1067,,,, 7, 6, 4, 3 1068,,, 1067, 5,,, 5 3),,, : (2 ) 1069,,,, 3 ; 1/ 3, 2 ; 2. 5/ 3 186
1068 1070,,,, 3 3,, 3, 2. 5, 3. 5, 1 3,, 6, 1 2/ 3, 9 1069 1071,, 2, 1, 5, 1, 3 1070 187
1071 1072,,, 3 2/ 3, 2, 1 1073, 1, 3,, 3/ 4,, 3/ 4,, 1074,,,,, 4,, (3 ) 1075, P K L, K L,, 1 K L 3. 5 1076, V1 V 2 K L K L, K L 3, 1 K L 3. 5, 1, K L 3, 1, K L 3. 5, 1 1077, V2 V3 V2 V4, V2 V3, V 2 V3 2. 5, 1 V2 V 4, V 2 V4, 1/ 3, 2/ 3, V2 V3, 2. 5, 1, V2 V4, V2 V4, 188
1072 1074 1073 1075 1076 1/ 3, 2/ 3,, : 1078,,,,,, 189
1077 1079,, ;, 1078 1079 1080,,,,, 1081,,, 1080 1081 190
,,, ( 1082 ), 1082,,,,,,, ;,,,,, 1082,,,, ( )?,, ;,,,, 1083 :,, 1082, 1083,, A A= BB, A AB B3. 14, CC= DD, CD = C D 1., AA, BB 2., 3. A A BB, DB = BB= B D, CA = A A = A C, CC D D 191
1084,, A ABB, A ABB3. 14, CCD D, CD = C D, : 1. A A, BB 2. A B A B, 3. 4. A B A B O 5. OA, O, 6. O, OB, 7. A A,, C, A A3. 143) C, CA = A A= A C ( 8. BB,, D, D, DB = BB= B D 3 ( BB3. 143) 9. CD C D, CD D C 1085,, A AB B, A ABB3. 14, CCDD, CD = C D,, 1084 1085,,, ( 1086 ) :, 1086,,,,,,,,,,,,, :, :, 192
1086 :, 1086, 1087,,,,, A A, BB 1088,, A AB B, A AB B 3. 14, CCD D, CD = C D,, (B B) 1087 1088 1. A AB B 2. A B A B, 3. 4. A B A BO 5. OA, O, 6. OB, O, 7. A A, C, C, C A = A A= A C 3 ( A A3. 143 ) 8. BB, D, D, DB = BB = B D 3 ( BB3. 143) 9. CD C D, CDD C 1089,,, 1087,, 1090, 193
A ABB, A ABB3. 14, CCD D, CD = C D,, ( A A),, 1088 1089 1090 194
( ) 1.,, :,,, 2. (1 ), : () ; ( ) ; ( 111 ) (2 ) 111 a) b ) c) d) :, : ( T,,, ), 195
,,,,,, 112 112 a ) b) c) d) e) f) (3 ) : ( ) ; ; ; ;,,, ( ),,,,,,,,,, 1.,,, 113, 24 K,, 113 ( ) 196
24 K ( 6 ) 3 : ( 114 ) () ;,, ;,,,,,,, 45, 4,, 115 24 K,,, 24 K,,,,,,, 114 115 2.,,, ( 6 ) ( 2, 8 ),, 116,,,, 116,,,, 5, : ; ; ;,,,, ( ) ( ) 197
,,,,, 117,, ( 118 ),,,,,,,,, 119, 715,,,, 1110 Z,,,,,,,,,,,,,,, 117 116 1 2 3 4 118, 1111,, ( ),,,,, 3.,,,,,,,,, 198
119 1110 1 2 3 1111, 925, (1 ), :, 1112 ;,, 2 mm, 2 mm 1,,, 1,,,,, 1113, 90,, 1, 1114,,, 1114,,,,,, ( 1115 ),,,, 1112 1 2 3 4 5 1113 1 2 3 4 199
1114 1 2 1115 (2 ),, 1116, : 1),,, 1/ 3,,, ( ), 2),,,,, 3),,,,,, ( 1117 ),,,, 4), ( ),,, 925 1116 1 2 3 4 5 1117 1 2 200
,,,,,, ( ),,,,,, :,,,,,,, 1.,, ( ), (1 ) ( ),,,,, (2 ),,,,, (3 ),,, 201
(4 ),,,,,,,,,, 2. (1 ),,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,, (2 ),,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,, (3 ),,,,,,,, 202
,,,? :,,?,,,,,,,,,,,, :,, 1118,,,,,,,, 3,, 1118,, 1 2, ( ),,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,, ;,,,, 203
,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,, ;, 1.,, : ( )?,,,,, 1/ 3 2/ 3,,,, 2/ 3, 1119 (9 ) : (, :, ),,,, 1119,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,, 2.,,,,,,,,,,,, 204
;,,,,,,,,,, 1/ 4, 70, 1120,,,,,,,,, 1121,, :,,,, 1120 a ) b) 1 2 (1 ),,,,,,,, 1122, 1121 1 2 (2 ),,,,, 1123, 205
1122 (3 ) :,,, ;, 1123,, 1124 1124 (4 ),, ;, 1125, 206
1125,,,,,, ( ),,,,,,,, 20 80,,,,, ( 12 ),,, 1.,, ( ),,,,,,,,, ( ),,,,,,,,,,, 207
,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,, 1126,,,,,,,,,,,, :,,, ;,,,,,, ;,,,,,,,,, 1127,,,,, :, :,,,, 2.,,,,, (1 ) 208
1126 1 2 3 1127 ( ),,, 1128,,,,,,,,, 1128 (2 ),,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,, 1129 (3 ),,,,,,,,,,, 209
1129,,,,,,, (4 ),,,,,, (5 ),,, 1. 2.,, 1130,,,, 0. 015, 210
3. (1 ),,, 1) 1130, 0. 2 mm,, 0. 2 mm 2),,, 0. 2 mm,,,,, 3),,, 4),, 5),, (2 ),,,,, : 1), ;,, 2),,, ;,, 3),,, 4),, 4. (1 ) 0. 015, 1),,, 2),,,, 211
1131, 3) ;, 1131 4),,,,, (2 ) 1),,, 2),,, 5. (1 ),,,,,,,,,,, (2 ) 1),, 2) 3) 1. (1 ),,, 0. 3 mm 2. 5 mm, 0. 5 mm 1. 5 mm,, ;, (2 ),,,,, 2., 0. 5 mm 2 mm, 0. 5 mm 1. 5 mm,,,,, 212
,,, 1.,,,,,,, 5 mm, 8. 5 mm, 3 mm, 5 mm 0. 40. 5 mm,, 1132,,,,,,, ;,,, 1. 2 mm, 0. 50. 6 mm, 7590, 1133,,,,,,,,, 1132 1133,,,,, 2. 213
,,,,, :, ;, 214
121, 121 a) b ) c),,, 1. 4, 0. 06 cm, 0. 2 cm,, 0. 08 cm, 16, 0. 55 cm,, 2. 0. 03 cm 0. 7 cm, 10 cm, 0. 21 cm, 34, 0. 2 cm,,,,, 122,, 0. 06 cm,,,, 123 1. 215
0. 15 cm, 0. 25 cm, 4 cm, 1. 5 cm,, 0. 2 cm, 0. 1 cm,, 1. 5 cm,,,,,,, 0. 11 cm,,, 0. 1 cm,,,, 124 122 123 124 2. 0. 065 cm 0. 25 cm,, 125,,, ( 126 ),,, 3. 0. 06 cm,,,,, 127,, 125 126 127 4., 128, 0. 07 cm,, 0. 0150. 02 cm,,,,,,,,, 6,,,, 4,,, 216
, 4 1. 0. 065 cm, 0. 2 cm, 0. 6 cm,,,, 129,,,, 2. 0. 09 cm 0. 06 cm,, 0. 09 cm, 1. 1 cm, 0. 05 cm,,, 1210 128 129 1210 3. (1 ),,,,,,, (2 ),,,,,,,,, 4,,,,,, 1. 0. 06 cm,, 0. 5 cm, 0. 06 cm, 0. 3 cm,, 217
, 1211, 0. 12 cm, 0. 25 cm, U U, U, U U, U 0. 21 cm, 0. 35 cm, 2. 0. 065 cm, 0. 22 cm, 1. 3 cm, 1212,,,,, 0. 06 cm,, 1212,,, 3. 0. 1 cm, 0. 55 cm,, 0. 06 cm, 0. 07 cm,,,,, 0. 065 cm 4.,,, 0. 06 cm, 2, 0. 06 cm, 2, 0. 07 cm,, 1213,, 0. 2 cm, 0. 23 cm,,,,, 0. 065 cm, 0. 065 cm 1211 1212 1213 5.,, 0. 0150. 02 cm,, 218
,,,, 6.,,,,, 4,, 4,,,, 4, 7.,,,,, 8.,,,,,, 4, 4,,,, 4, 219
1.. :, 2 00 0 2..,, 1 97 6 3,... :, 1 99 7 4.., 1 99 2 5,,.,,., 1 99 7 6,.. :, 1 99 7 7.,.. :, 1 98 6 8,,.. :, 1 98 6 9.., 1 97 6 10. :, 19 92 220