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1 明志科技大學電子系計算機結構 Chapter 1: 計算機概念與技術授課教師 : 黃樹林

計算機歷史 -- 現代電子計算機真空管電子數位計算機的雛形 :Atanasoff, 1937 電子數值積分計算機 (ENIAC) 的發明 :(1942-1946-1955)

Presper Eckert 博士世界第一部 General-purpose 電子數位電腦有 20 個儲存記錄器及程式記憶單元, 18,000 個真空管, 長 30m, 高

2 計算機歷史 -- 現代電子計算機真空管電子數位計算機的雛形 :Atanasoff, 1937 電子數值積分計算機 (ENIAC) 的發明 :( ) 美國賓州大學 John Machly 與 J. Presper Eckert 博士世界第一部 General-purpose 電子數位電腦有 20 個儲存記錄器及程式記憶單元, 18,000 個真空管, 長 30m, 高 3m, 寬 10m 內儲程式計算機 (EDVAC):1944 idea John von Neuman with ENIAC 現代計算機架構的雛形 Von Neumann Computer( 自動執行 ) EDSAC: 1949,Maurice Wilkes 第一部全規格 (full-scale) 的內儲程式計算機

3 The First Computer

4 First electronic computer(eniac)

5 計算機歷史 -- 現代電子計算機 Manchester:1947, magnetic drum Transistors :1948, Invented at IBM Bell Labs MIT Whirlwind project: Magnetic core memory (2K 16-bit words) Harvard architecture: howard aiken at Harvard The machine 使用分離的記憶體來存程式與資料 ( 今天, 使用獨立的指令快取與資料快取 (I-cache and D-cache) UNIVAC:( , UNIVersal Automatic Computer) 第一部商用計算機 ( 美國 ) 48 系統被建立 UNIVAC II 年代後期, Magnetic core

6 計算機歷史 -- 電腦王國 (IBM) Punched-card processing equipment IBM 701:1952 IBM 的第一個內儲程式計算機真空管, 磁鼓型態, 二進制 IBM 702,705,709->700/7000 Series IBM 7090: IBM 709 的電晶體電路設計 IBM S/360 (30, 40, 50, 60, 62, 70) 家族系列 : 1964, Multiplexed switch structure (I/O Channel) 第一個提出家族觀念相似的指令集, 作業系統容易增加速度,I/O, 記憶體, 價值

7 計算機歷史 -Mini & Super computer DEC PDP-8: 1965 第一個迷你型電腦 ( 在迷你裙之後 miniskirt!) 夠小而能在實驗室中使用匯流排結構 (BUS STRUCTURE) PDP-11 :1970 Intel 8080(1974) CDC 6600: 1963, Seymour Cray 第一個超級電腦多個執行單元的設計 Cray-1:1976 管線式向量計算機 (SIMD) 160 MFLOPs peak

8 計算機歷史 Microcomputer Intel 4004 : 1971, 4-bit 第一個微處理機 ( 大小 : 微米, 速度 : 微秒 us) 所有 CPU 元件都做在一個晶片 (chip) 上 Intel 8080,8088 : 1974, 8-bit general purpose Apple II : 1977, M6502 IBM 個人電腦 (1981) : 選用 Intel 8086(16-bit general purpose) ; 80x86 個人電腦 RISC chips : 1987, MIPS, Intel, Motorola 個人電腦戰國時代 : Pentium I,II,III/ K5,K6,K7/PowerPC 601,604,620 後 PC 時代 : IA (Internet Appliance, 網際網路應用 )

9 讓 PC 成為真正有用的東西 -- 應用程式 1979: 1st electronic spreadsheet (VisiCalc for Apple II) by Don Bricklin and Bob Franston The killer app for early PCs Followed by dbase II,...

processors around 1985 MIPS: MIPS Sun: Sparc IBM: Power RISC HP: PA-RISC DEC: Alpha They compete

10 80 年代,IC 的集成進入 VLSI New processor architecture was introduced: RISC (Reduced Instruction Set Computer) IBM: John Cocke UC Berkeley: David Patterson Stanford: John Hennessy Commercial RISC processors around 1985 MIPS: MIPS Sun: Sparc IBM: Power RISC HP: PA-RISC DEC: Alpha They compete with CISC (complex instruction set computer) processors, mainly Intel x86 processors, for the next 15 years

11 後來的故事在計算機結構方面比較不精彩不過似乎後 PC 的時代已經來臨

12 計算機世代演進史 Generation Dates Technology Principal new product Vacuum tubes Commercial, electronic computer Transistors Cheaper computers New companies and machines IBM 701, UNIVAC 1 Burroughs 6500, NCR, CDC 6600, Honeywell Integrated circuit Minicomputer 50 new companies: DEC PDP-11, Data General Nova ? LSI and VLSI Personal computers and workstations 5 199?-???? Parallel processing? Apple II, Apollo DN 300, Sun2 Multiprocessors???

14 The MOS Transistor

15 Intel 4004 Micro-Processor

16 Intel Pentium (IV) microprocessor

17 The chip manufacturing process

18 晶片製造過程

19 8-inch Wafer

20 CPU and Cooling Fan

21 Different Types of Computers Desktop computer A computer designed for use by an individual, usually incorporating a graphics display, keyboard, and mouse. Server A computer used for running larger programs for multiple users often simultaneously and typically accessed only via a network Supercomputer A class of computer with the highest performance and cost; they are configured as servers and typically cost millions of dollars Embedded computer A computer inside another device used for running one predetermined application, e.g., cellular phone, video games, digital TVs, set-top boxes, personal digital assistants (PDAs), computer inside.

22 Computer Usage: Embedded Uses: control (traffic, printer, disk); consumer electronics (video game, CD player, PDA) Lego Mindstorms Robotic command explorer: A Programmable Brick, Hitachi H8 CPU (8-bit), 32KB RAM, LCD, batteries, infrared transmitter/receiver, 4 control buttons, 6 connectors

23 生活裡的應用比比皆是

24 Embedded Computers Typically w/o FP or MMU, but integrating various peripheral functions, e.g., DSP Large variety in ISA, performance, on-chip peripherals Compatibility is non-issue, new ISA easy to enter, low power become important More architecture and survive longer: 4- or 8-bit microprocessor still in use (8-bit for cost-sensitive, 32-bit for performance) Large volume sale (billions) at low price ($40-$5) 1995 #1: x86; #2: 6800; #3: Hitachi SuperH (Sega) Others: MIPS, StrongARM, PA-RISC Trend: lower cost, more functionality system-on-chip, mp core on ASIC

25 Several factors: Why Such Changes? IC technology: clock rate, power, transistors per chip enable Computer architecture: pipeline, cache, MMX, instructions per cycle supported by Mass market: market share, revenue, applications Let s examine IC technology first...

26 VLSI IC Technology Line width (nm) Clock (GHz) DRAM cost (microcents/bit) MPU cost (microcent/trans) Supply voltage(v) Wiring levels cost per transistor chip density

27 Technology Progress: Implication Minimum feature size: halve every 7 years O(n 2 ) with respect to transistor count and O(n) with respect to switching time Power dissipation Wafer size: X2 every 3 years O(n 2 ) with respect to transistor count Others: provide one-time improvement Price: lower costs due to Simpler development and higher volumes with CMOS Highly integrated chips with improved speed, reliability, cost, functionality

28 Introduction The number of distinct processors sold between 1998 and 2002

29 Introduction Sales of microprocessors between 1998 and 2002 by instruction set architecture combing all users

30 The Processor Market

31 What you can learn in this book? How are programs written in a high-level language, and how does the hardware execute the resulting program? What is the interface between the software and the hardware, and how does software instruct the hardware to perform needed functions? What determines the performance of a program, and how can a programmer improve the performance?

32 計算機組成構成的單元 : 輸入裝置 ( 滑鼠, 鍵盤等 ) (IU; Input Unit) 輸出裝置 ( 螢幕, 印表機等 ) (OU; Output Unit) 記憶體 ( 磁碟機, DRAM,SRAM, 光碟片 ) (MU) 網路 ( 現代發展 ) 微處理機 (CPU, 如 x86, MIPS, Power PC, Sun..)

33 計算機五大組織要件

34 個人電腦系統硬體結構

35 I/O Devices Cathode ray tube (CRT) display A display, such as a television set, that displays an image using an electron beam scanned across a screen Flat-panel display, Liquid Crystal Display (LCD) A display technology using a thin layer of liquid polymers that can be used to transmit or block light according to whether a charge is applied

36 PC motherboard

37 Opening the box

38 Motherboard Computer components A plastic board containing packages of integrated circuits or chips, including processor, cache, memory, and connectors for I/O devices such as networks and disks Integrated Circuit (IC) or chip A device combining dozens to millions of transistors Memory The storage area in which programs are kept when they are running and that contains the data needed by the running programs

39 Computer components Central processor unit (CPU) Also called processor. The active part of the computer, which contains the datapath and control and which adds numbers, tests numbers, signals I/O devices to activate, and so on. Datapath Control The component of the processor that performs arithmetic operations (add, sub, mul, div) The component of the processor that commands the datapath, memory, and I/O devices according to the instructions of the program

40 Memory: A place for data Memory: Memory built as an integrated circuit, it provides random access to any location Static Random Access Memory (SRAM) Dynamic Random Access Memory (DRAM) Cache memory A small, fast memory that acts as a buffer for a slower, larger memory

41 Memory (I) Memory The storage area in which programs are kept when they are running and that contains the data needed by the running programs Volatile memory Storage, such as DRAM, that only retains data only if it is receiving power Nonvolatile memory A form of memory that retains data even in the absence of a power source and that is used to store programs between runs. Magnetic disk is nonvolatile and DRAM is not.

42 Memory (II) Primary memory Also called main memory. Volatile memory used to hold programs while they are running; typically consists of DRAM in today s computers Secondary memory Nonvolatile memory used to store programs and data between runs; typically consists of magnetic disks in today s computers Magnetic disk (also called hard disk) A form of nonvolatile secondary memory composed of rotating platters coated with a magnetic recording material

43 Disk: A safe place for data

44 Disk: A safe place for data Hard drive: most commonly used storage: 40Gbytes~60Gbytes/UDS 100. Optical disks constitute the most common form of removable storage Magnetic tape provides only slow serial access and has been used to back up disks, in a role now often replaced by duplicate hard drivers FLASH-based removable memory cards typically attach by a USB (Universal Serial Bus) connection and are often used to transfer files Floppy drivers and Zip drives are a version of magnetic disk technology with removable flexible disks.

45 Communicating with Other Computers Networked computers have several major advantages Communication: Information is exchanged between computers at high speeds Resource sharing: Rather than each machine having its own I/O devices, devices can be shared by computers on the network Non-local access: By connecting computers over long distances, users need not be near the computer they are using

46 Communicating with other computers Local area network (LAN) A network designed to carry data within a geographically confined area, typically within a single building, e.g. 10/100M Ethernet Wide area network (WAN) A network extended over hundreds of kilometers which can span a continent, e.g, ADSL

47 CPU 是甚麼? CPU 是 Central Processing Unit 中央處理器之簡稱使整部電腦能夠運作的最核心最重要的元件電腦系統開始運作時,CPU 從記憶體讀取操作它的軟體的指令與資料, 透過 ALU 運算結果存回記憶體, 同時由主機板與外界的 I/O 週邊溝通 CPU 為控制整部電腦運作的中心樞紐, 內部包括控制單元算術及邏輯單元暫存器或記憶單元算術及邏輯運算單元 (ALU): 加減乘除及比較選擇判斷等運算控制單元 (CU): 翻譯程式中指令的解碼功能及協調控制各部門依指令執行使電腦自動化處理資料記憶單元 : 儲存目前正要被處理運算的程式或資料, 容量以 KB 為單位暫存器 (Register): 暫時儲存資料, 如儲存運算累積器功能與記憶體相似輸入單元 (Input,I/P): 接受輸入資料或程式供進一步處理如鍵盤滑鼠輸出單元 (Output,O/P): 負責將 CPU 處理結果輸出, 如 : 印表機磁碟機

48 CPU 基本結構 CPU 主要工作是執行指令指令可能是所寫的程式, 經過 C 或 C++ 等編譯器所轉成的機械碼, 也可能各週邊介面的驅動程式, 或是存在 BIOS 中的程式碼無論指令何處來及其型態為何, 微處理機都必須將指令經過一番處理, 並執行指令所隱含的工作 ( 如兩個數字相加減或乘除 ) CPU 的構造算術邏輯單元 ( ALU, Arithmetic Logic Unit ) 暫存器 ( Register ) 控制單元 ( Control Unit ) 系統時脈 ( System Clock ) CPU 暫存器系統時脈算術邏輯單元 ALU 控制單元資料匯流排控制地址匯流排控制資料匯流排地址匯流排 CPU 控制與系統控制信號

49 ALU(Arithmetic Logic Unit) 運算功能 CPU 內部負責所有資料運算工作 ( 包括算術和邏輯運算 ) 的處理單元主要的運算請參考下表組合語言部份的指令功能 ALU 就是透過指令的執行, 將它的運算結果儲存在暫存器中 CPU 便依照暫存器內不同的結果來做程式的執行算術邏輯功能加法減法比較遞增遞減邏輯運算功能 AND OR NOT XOR 左移右移左旋轉右旋轉位元設定清除測試

50 暫存器 (Register) 功能是暫時儲存 CPU 執行程式後的結果, 使程式設計者能加以適當的控制利用, 通常分一般目的暫存器 (GPR) 及特殊目的暫存器 (SPR) 一般目的暫存器用來儲存普通的運算結果特殊目的暫存器則暫存與 CPU 內部運作有關資料程式計數器 (PC,Program Counter )& 堆疊指標 (SP,Stack Pointer ), 此二暫存器是任何 CPU 必須具備的 PC, 是使 CPU 能自動從記憶體讀取指令的重要機制 (PC<- PC+1) SP, 是用來設定系統在執行時堆疊正在記憶體中的最高位置, 這與副程式的執行及 PUSH POP 指令有直接關係, 沒有適當的設定, 程式則無法正確的執行

51 CPU 內部較重要的暫存器程式計數器 PC (Program Counter): 負責儲存 CPU 下一次所要執行的記憶體位址指令暫存器 IR (Instruction Register): 負責儲存 CPU 所要執行的指令堆疊指標器 SP (Stack Pointer): 負責儲存 CPU 目前使用的堆疊位址位址暫存器 MAR (Memory Address Register): 負責儲存 CPU 所要存取記憶體資料的位址旗標 ( 程式狀態 ) 暫存器 FLAG(PSW) Register: 負責儲存 ALU 運算處理後 CPU 的狀態如進位旗標 CF 溢位旗標 OF 符號旗標 SF 等

52 控制單元 (Control Unit) 控制單元是 CPU 的心臟部份, 配合 ALU 及暫存器來完成微處理機的各種指令運作一般控制單元主要功能可以概分為下列幾項 : (1) 指令碼提取及指令解碼 ( 運算碼 (OP Code), 運算元 (Operand)) (2) 記憶體資料的讀取或寫入 (3) 輸入輸出埠資料的讀取或寫入 (4) 插斷 (Interrupt) 功能的請求 (Request) 與認知 (Acknowledge) (5) 匯流排使用的請求與認知 (6) 不可遮罩 (Non Maskable) 插斷的請求與認知 (7) 從暫停指令離開

53 控制單元 (Control Unit) 除了控制內部的運作外, 還必須控制整個系統匯流排的動作, 其中匯流排包括地址匯流排 (Address Bus) 資料匯流排 (Data Bus) 及控制匯流排 (Control Bus), 而控制匯流排又分為 CPU 本身的內部控制信號及整個系統控制信號 CPU 是如何讀取存在記憶體中的程式碼而執行呢? 首先發出地址線至記憶體中讀取指令放在指令暫存器 (IR) 中 -> 指令讀取 (IF:Instruction Fetch) 而後進行指令解碼 (ID:Instruction Decode), 發出相對應 ALU 控制訊號, 以便讓 ALU 了解要作何運算, 是否需要運算元 (Operand), 如果需要則至暫存器或記憶體中讀取資料 (OF:Operand Fetch) 來做運算 (EXE:Execution) 運算完後再將結果寫至暫存器或記憶體中, 而結束一完整指令的執行週期 (Instruction Cycle), 負責這一連串動作的單元, 我們稱為控制單元

54 系統時脈 (System Clock) CPU 內部動作相當複雜, 大量的資料在匯流排 (Bus) 線上高速度的交換著, 完全依賴系統時脈才能井然有序, 按步就班的工作著系統時脈如何提供呢? 可由外部加一石英振盪晶體 (Crystal) 經放大後的信號而接至 CPU 的時脈輸入接腳當振盪頻率越高時, CPU 本身的運算速度越快, 卻有個上限, 稱為最高工作頻率, 超過此一頻率後,CPU 便無法正常運作了

55 系統匯流排 (System Bus) 位址匯流排 Address Bus 負責傳送 CPU 所要存取資料的位址, 它可以決定 CPU 所能處理的記憶體容量,N 條位址線可以擁有 2 的 N 次方的記憶空間, 而其位址為 0 至 2 的 N 次方來減 1 資料匯流排 Data Bus 負責傳送 CPU 所要存取的資料, 其線數的多少代表 CPU 的記憶體字組 Memory Word, 亦即 CPU 一次所能存取記憶體資料的基本單位 (PCI: 32/64 Bit) 控制匯流排 Control Bus 負責傳送 CPU 所發出的控制訊號 (Memory Read/Write, I/O Port Read/Write,INTR,Reset 等 )

56 Von Neumann 計算機內儲程式計算機, 二進制的 ALU 運算, 五大單元控制單元從記憶體抓取指令, 解譯後啟動相對應電路 (ALU) 來執行控制單元控制 I/O 裝置的運作 IAS(Princeton Institute for Advanced Studies):1952 Input Output Equipment (I/O Unit) Arithmetic and Logic Unit (Datapath) Program Control Unit (Control Unit) Main Memory (Memory Unit)

57 PLD (Programmable Logic Device) All layers already exist Designers can purchase an IC Connections on the IC are either created or destroyed to implement desired functionality Field-Programmable Gate Array (FPGA) very popular Benefits Low NRE costs, almost instant IC availability Drawbacks Bigger, expensive (perhaps $30 per unit), power hungry, slower

58 Technologies for building processors and memories Transistor Vacuum tube Very large scale integrated (VLSI) circuit Growth of capacity per DRAM chip over time

59 CPU Performance in WS

60 個人電腦系統軟體結構

61 Computer programs Systems software Software that provides services that are commonly useful, including operating systems, compilers, and assemblers. Operating system Supervising program that manages the resources of a computer for the benefit of the programs that run on that machine Compiler A program that translates high-level language statements into assembly language statements

62 Below your program A simplified view of hardware and software as hierarchical layers, shown as concentric circles with hardware in the center and applications software outermost

63 System software Operating System (Windows, Linux, MacOS) Handle basic input and output operations Allocate storage and memory Provide for sharing the computer among multiple applications using it simultaneously. Compilers: translate high-level language (C, Java) into instructions that the hardware can execute Assembler: From assembly language to machine language

64 From high-level language to the language of hardware C program ->compiled into assembly language ->and then assembled into binary machine language

65 多核心 (Multi-Core) 微處理器

66 Summary The basics of computer components and CPU are reviewed The next issue is to explore the details of the CPU design: Instruction sets (assembly language, machine language) Chapter 2 Arithmetic for computers: ALU design for add/subtract/multiplications/division Chapter 3 Performance evaluation Chapter 4 CPU datapath and control units Chapter 5

67 習題

68 1.54 Sometimes software optimization can dramatically improve the performance of a computer system. Assume that a CPU can perform a multiplication operation in 10 ns, and a subtraction operation in 1 ns. How long will it take for the CPU to calculate the result of d = a b - a c? Could you optimize the equation so that it will take less time? Please show the time! (5 分 )

69 1.51 Assume you are in a company that will market a certain IC chip. The fixed costs, including R&D, fabrication and equipments, and so on, add up to $500,000. The cost per wafer is $6000, and each wafer can be diced into 1500 dies. The die yield is 50%. Finally, the dies are packaged and tested, with a cost of $10 per chip. The test yield is 90%; only those that pass the test will sold to customers. If the retail price is 30% more than the cost, at least how many chips have to be sold to break even? (5 分 )

1 CPU

1 CPU 2000 Tel 82316285 82317634 Mail liuxd@buaa.edu.cn 1 CPU 2 CPU 7 72 A B 85 15 3 1/2 M301 2~17 : 3/4 1/2 323 IBM PC 1. 2. 3. 1. 2. 3. 1.1 Hardware Software 1.2 M3 M2 M1 1.2 M3 M1 M2 M2 M1 M1 M1 1.2 M3 M1