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3 中国机动车排放控制措施评估 成功经验与未来展望 图 4.1: 柴油燃料标准实施时间表 r(超级6!<eee(5597<(优质(6d<eee(5597(和普通6de<eee(5597车用柴油燃料的硫含量限值 rr(推荐性国##柴油标准从!ee"年起实施 硫含量限值为Dee559 但不要求在全国范围内满足国##柴油标准 rrr(虽然在!eec年dd月上海率先实施国###柴油标准 不高于De559 前 没有其他的先进地方标准出台 但柴油硫含 量应在!eec年以前就已降到!eee559以下了 很可能在deee559或以下 m(国#o柴油重型车标准在!ede年`月d日在珠三角开始实施 硫含量DeB559的柴油已在广州市供应 同时会在!ede年开 始在其他广东城市提供 图 4.2: 汽油燃料标准实施时间表 本节将评估中国汽柴油的现行标准 讨论推进燃料标准过程中的障碍并提供逾越这些障碍的推荐方案 从而确保油品 标准和车辆标准同步发展和实施 ( b! "D

4 Figure 4.1: Diesel fuel standard adoption timeline r(h2',(42,-20(,191.4(-*0(425'0(6!<eee(5597<(50'9129(6d<eee(5597(+/8(0')2,+0(6de<eee(5597(9*.*0(81'4',(-2',? rr(v(4'.(*-(;*,2/.+0:($&1/+(##(81'4',(4.+/8+084<(a1.&(,191.4(*/(42,-20(+.(dee(559<(a+4(+8*5.'8(1/(!ee"<(=2.(81'4',(9''.1/)($&1/+(##( 0'>210'9'/.4(+0'(/*.(A18',:(+;+1,+=,'(1/($&1/+? rrr(\*(1/.'09'81+.'(,*3+,(4.+/8+08(a+4(+//*2/3'8(='-*0'(.&'(+8;+/3'8(195,'9'/.+.1*/(*-($&1/+(###(81'4',(4.+/8+08(6deb559(42,-20( 3*/.'/.7(1/(G&+/)&+1(1/(\*;'9='0(!eec<(=2.(81'4',(42,-20(3*/.'/.(4&*2,8(&+;'(3*9'(8*A/(.*(=',*A(!eee(559(650*=+=,:(+0*2/8(deee( 559(*0(,'447(.&'(-'A(:'+04(='-*0'(!eec? m($&1/+(#o(;'&13,'(4.+/8+084(.**j('--'3.(1/(s'+0,(u1;'0(x',.+(*/(t2/(d<(!edel(de(559(81'4',(-2',(14(+,0'+8:(+;+1,+=,'(1/(y2+/)h&*2( +/8(A1,,(='()0+82+,,:(4255,1'8(.*(Y2+/)8*/)(50*;1/3'(1/(!ede? Figure 4.2: Gasoline fuel standard adoption timeline %&14(4'3.1*/(0';1'A4(.&'(3200'/.(81'4',(+/8()+4*,1/'(4.+/8+084(+8*5.'8(1/($&1/+<( '4(.&'(*=4.+3,'4(-*0(1950*;1/)(.&'(-2',( 4.+/8+08(+/8(*--'04(0'3*99'/8+.1*/4(-*0(*;'03*91/)(.&*4'(*=4.+3,'4(.*('/420'(.&+.(-2',(4.+/8+084(+/8(;'&13,'(4.+/8+084(+0'( 8';',*5'8(+/8(+8*5.'8(1/(.+/8'9?( b" "D

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8 0+,) )7JH'HU)V"HU)'#MPQM&Q' 42,-20(1/(.&'(81'4',(-2',(3*/;'0.4(1/.*(810'3.( ,+.'(9+..'0('91441*/4(642,-2013(+3187(+/8(Gi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bDfBcDf(0'823.1*/(1/(SP('91441*/4(=2.(1.4('- 31'/3:(3+/(='(195+3.'8(=:(-2',(42,-20(1/(4';'0+,(A+:4W B((i5'0+.1*/(A1.&(&1)&'0B42,-20(-2',4(3+/(3+24'(.&'(,.'0(.*(='(*;'0B,*+8'8(A1.&(4**.(+/8(3+/(0'42,.(1/('/)1/'(8+9+)'(682'(.*(1/30'+4'8( =+3J50'4420'7(+/8j*0(2/3*/.0*,,'8(,.'0(0')'/'0+.1*/(.&+.(3+/(8+9+)'(.&'(,.'0? 31'/3:(*-(.&'(,.'0(=:(3*95'.1/)(-*0(41.'4(*/(.&'(3+.+,:4.(/''8'8(-*0(.&'( ,(\i(.*(\i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h'*,:.'(3+.+,:4.4(.&+.(5'0-*09(='..'0(1/(20=+/(82.:(3:3,'4(6,*AB,*+8<(,*AB.'95'0+.20'7( *5'0+.1*/4(+0'(4'/41.1;'(.*(42,-20(63+//*.(-2/3.1*/(A',,(A1.&("DeB559(42,-207?((M1)&(42,-20(-2',(A1,,(,191.(.&'('--'3.1;'(24'(*-(h'*,:.'( ( 3*/.01=2.'(.*(3+.+,:4.(+)1/)(+/8(.&'(-2',(/''8'8(-*0(0')'/'0+.1*/(8')0+8'4(;'&13,'(-2',('- 31'/3:?( i.&'0(81'4',(3&+0+3.' <(1/3,281/)(5*,:+0*9+.13(3*/.'/.<(3'.+/'(/29='0<(8'/41.:<(814.1,,+.1*/<(+4&<(4245'/8'8(4*,184(3*/.'/.(+/8( ;143*41.:<(+,4*(+--'3.(81'4',('91441*/4?((#95+3.4(*-(.&'4'(3&+0+3.' (+/8(42,-20(*/(.&'(5'0-*09+/3'(+/8('91441*/4(*-(,1)&.B(+/8( &'+;:B82.:('/)1/'(+0'( h'8(1/(%+=,'4(RB"(+/8(RBC(1/(V55'/81@(R? ba "a

9 !ee!!eee559 Dee559!eee559 C?"!edd a ### "De559 #O De559!edd d #O #O!eee559 "De559!edd ` #O G$U XSH4 G$U #O De559 #O #O "D De559 #O "De559 dcf adf "` De559!eeb!eec #O!ede ` d #O #O #O "a #O #O #O 35 4/IV DPFs DPFs 50ppm 4/IV 50ppm DPFs DOC / SCR IV 4/IV 50ppm , FUEL 87, IV bb "b

10 V(9+/8+.*0:(81'4',(4.+/8+08(,191.1/)(42,-20(3*/.'/.(.*(!<eee(559(6,1)&.(81'4',(4.+/8+087(A+4(+8*5.'8(/+.1*/A18'(1/($&1/+(1/(!ee!<(+/8(+(:'+0(,+.'0<(+(;*,2/.+0:(4.+/8+08(-*0(+2.*9*.1;'(81'4',(-2',(*-(DeeB559(42,-20(A+4(1/.0*823'8?((M*A';'0<(-2',(4+95,1/)( 3*/823.'8(1/(\*0.&'0/($&1/+(+/8(*.&'0(,*3+.1*/4(42))'4.(.&+.(42,-20(3*/.'/.(*-(81'4',(;+01'4(3*/418'0+=,:(+30*44(.&'(3*2/.0:(+/8(81'4',( A1.&(!eeeB559(42,-20(14(4.1,,(='1/)(4*,8(1/(4*9'(0')1*/4(64''(H1)20'(C?"7?(V4( '8('+0,1'0<($&1/+(14()*1/)(.*(195,'9'/.($&1/+(###( 81'4',(4.+/8+084(6"DeB559(42,-207(+30*44(.&'(3*2/.0:(1/(T2,:(!edd<(=2.(/*(.19',1/'(14(4'.(-*0(+8*5.1/)($&1/+(#O(-2',(4.+/8+084(6DeB559( 42,-20(81'4',7?(#-($&1/+(#O(&'+;:B82.:(;'&13,'(4.+/8+084(+0'(.*()*(1/.*('--'3.(-*0(+,,(81'4',(;'&13,'4(+4(5,+//'8(1/(T+/(!edd<($&1/+( #O(;'&13,'4(A1,,(='(*5'0+.'8(241/)(81'4',(A1.&(25(.*(!<eee(559(42,-20(1/1.1+,,:(.&'/(A1.&("DeB559(42,-20(81'4',(6+-.'0(T2/'(!edd7?( ;'&13,'4(3*2,8(-2/3.1*/(1/(.&'(1/.'019(='-*0'($&1/+(#O(-2',4(6DeB559(42,-20(81'4',7(+0'(+;+1,+=,'?((M*A';'0<(-2,,('91441*/(0'823.1*/( ='/'.4(*-(.&'4'(;'&13,'4(A*2,8(/*.(='(8',1;'0'8(A1.&*2.(.&'(9+.3&1/)(-2',(4.+/8+08 "D?((V(4.28:(50*F'3.'8(.&+.(+($&1/+(#OB3*95,1+/.( "`?(( V4(9'/.1*/'8(='-*0'<(4*9'(31.1'4(42--'01/)(-0*9(4';'0'(5*,,2.1*/(-0*9(9*.*0(;'&13,'4(&+;'(+,0'+8:(4&1-.'8(.*(81'4',(A1.&(,*A'0(42,-20( 3*/.'/.W(DeB559(81'4',(-2',4(+0'(9+/8+.'8(1/(E'1F1/)(+/8(G&+/)&+1(A&'/(.&'(.A*(31.1'4(+8*5.'8($&1/+(#O(;'&13,'('91441*/(4.+/8+084( 1/(!eeb(+/8(!eec(0'45'3.1;',:(+/8(.&'(S'+0,(U1;'0(X',.+(*-(Y2+/)8*/)(50*;1/3'(&+4(*=.+1/'8(G.+.'($*2/31,(+550*;+,(.*(195,'9'/.( $&1/+(#O(;'&13,'(+/8(-2',(4.+/8+084(4.+0.1/)(-0*9(T2/'(d<(!ede?(U1)&.(/*A(1/(E'1F1/)(+/8(G&+/)&+1<($&1/+(#O(;'&13,'(4.+/8+084(*/,:( +55,:(.*(MXXO4(*5'0+.1/)(A1.&1/(.&'4'(.A*(31.1'4(631.:(=24'4<(4+/1.+0:(+/8(5*4.+,(.023J47(='3+24'(-2',(4255,1'8(*2.418'(.&'4'(.A*( 31.1'4(3+/(&+;'(923&(&1)&'0(42,-20(3*/.'/.(.&+.(3*2,8(8+9+)'('91441*/(3*/.0*,(8';13'4(*-($&1/+(#O(MXXO4(*0(1/30'+4'((9+1/.'/+/3'( /''84(-*0(.&*4'(;'&13,'4 "a?($*/418'01/)(.&'(,+0)'( ''.(*-(20=+/(81'4',(=24'4(1/(.&'4'(.A*(31.1'4<(+8;+/3'8(195,'9'/.+.1*/(*-($&1/+( #O(;'&13,'(+/8(-2',(4.+/8+084(3+/(=01/)(41)/1 3+/.(+10(>2+,1.:(='/'.4?(E'1F1/)(+/8(G&+/)&+1(3*2,8(0'+,1h'(9*0'(+10(>2+,1.:(='/'.4( 1-(-2',4(4*,8(*2.418'(.&'(31.1'4(3*2,8(9''.($&1/+(#O(4.+/8+084<(A&13&(+,,*A(.&'(.A*(31.1'4(.*(+8*5.($&1/+(#O(MXXO(4.+/8+084(-*0(+,,( MXXO4? 35 When the Euro 4/IV standards were developed, it was expected that compliant vehicles would have to be equipped with DPFs to meet the PM requirements. Because the use of diesel particulate filters (DPFs) requires low sulfur diesel (50-ppm maximum), the diesel sulfur limit to match with Euro 4/IV vehicle standards was set at 50 ppm. After the standards were adopted, manufacturers were able to meet Euro IV requirements through engine modifications and the use of after-treatment devices that are less sulfur-sensitive than DPFs, like EGR plus diesel oxidation catalysts (DOC) or partial flow filters, or engine improvements plus SCR. As a result, the technologies for meeting Euro 4/IV standards can function using fuel with more than 50-ppm sulfur. 36 See Liu H. et. al Analysis of the impacts of fuel sulfur on vehicle emissions in China. Fuel. Vol. 87. pp Shanghai also requires construction trucks to comply with China IV standards. bc "b

11 中国机动车排放控制措施评估 成功经验与未来展望 来源 张克松等人 2010年 中国北方汽柴油燃料硫含量 能源政策 38期 6号 图4.3: 中国北方地区高速公路加油站柴油硫含量抽样情况 低硫燃料的滞后除了削弱大城市的机动车排放控制效果外 已经成为加严新车标准和在全国范围内控制在用车排放的 主要障碍 作为最有效的新车和在用车颗粒物排放控制装置 柴油车颗粒物捕集器要求使用低硫柴油 不大于De559 推 荐de559 如果没有低硫柴油 尽管不是不可能 但要进一步加严车辆标准和强化在用车排放控制将面临重大挑战 0+/) 非道路柴油燃料标准 和车用柴油一样 非道路柴油中对排放影响最大的指标也是硫含量 在许多国家 非道路发动机和设备执行的标准相 对较松 因此对非道路柴油燃料的要求也通常没有车用燃料标准那么严格 在过去的de年中 美国 欧盟和日本已经在逐步加严非道路机车的排放标准 为了在非道路机车上使用排放控制装 置 这些国家已经出台了配套的较低非道路柴油硫含量限值 目前 中国的非道路燃料硫含量标准为!eee559 与车用柴 油强制标准相同 中国的非道路燃料硫含量限值比欧盟 美国和日本的限值要高出许多 表C?d展示了美国 欧盟 日本 巴西和中国的燃料硫含量限值 ce "c

12 Source: Zhang, K., et al Sulfur content of gasoline and diesel fuels in northern China. Energy Policy, vol. 38, number 6. Figure 4.3: Sulfur content of diesel in samples from highway service stations in northern China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g4(3200'/.(42,-20(4.+/8+08(-*0(/*/B0*+8(-2',(14(!<eee(559<(.&'(4+9'(+4(.&'(9+/8+.*0:(4.+/8+08(-*0(9*.*0( ;'&13,'(81'4',?(%&'(42,-20(,191.4(-*0(/*/B0*+8(-2',(1/($&1/+(14(923&(&1)&'0(.&+/(.&'(,191.4(+8*5.'8j.*(='(+8*5.'8(1/(R[<([G<(+/8( T+5+/?(%+=,'(C?d(4&*A4(.&'(-2',(42,-20(,191.4(+8*5.'8(1/(.&'([G<(R[<(T+5+/<(E0+h1,(+/8($&1/+?( ( cd "c

13 ( d! dd(559( 6!ede 7 deee(559 de(559(6!eeb 7 dbee(559( "!eee(559!ed! dd(559!edd de(559(!edc W( dbee559( 4.1: d( o(!ede Dee559!edC dd559!(o( "(o(!edc dbee ) ( #O O O# XSH4 G$U De559 W( %$!be "b %$!be %$!be %$!be %$!be %$!be C" " "e " Df "c ( 38 (, ) 39 VECC ( ) c! Ce

14 Q#P#%G [G( d R[ TVSV\ EUV]#Q $M#\V $200'/.(42,-20(,191.4 dd(559(-*0(/*/b0*+8( 24'4! ( /)(1/(!ede7 deee(559 de(559( /)(1/(!eeb7 dbee(559( "!eee(559 V8*5.'8(-2.20'(,191.4 dd(559(=:(!ed!(-*0( /*/B0*+8<(,*3*9*.1;'( +/8(9+01/'( +55,13+.1*/4 de(559(=:(!edd \*/B0*+8(45'31 3( 4.+/8+084W(dbee559( =:(!edc Table 4.1: Non-road fuel requirements in the US, EU, Japan, Brazil and China d(o(g9+,,(0' /'04(+/8(195*0.'04(+0'(+,,*A'8(9*0'(.19'(.*(9''.(.&'(81'4',(42,-20(0'>210'9'/.4<(A&13&(A1,,(='(Dee559(=:(!ede(+/8(dD( 559(=:(!edC?!(o(\*/B0*+8('/)1/'4(+/8('>2159'/.(1/3,28'(3*/ */<(+)0132,.20+,<(1/ ,(+/8(+105*0.('>2159'/.? "(o(g2,-20(,191.(-*0(81'4',(4*,8(+.(.&'(3*2/.0:418'<(a&13&(14(9+1/,:(3*/429'8(-*0(/*/b0*+8(+55,13+.1*/4l(e0+h1,(a1,,(195,'9'/.(+/( *- 31+,(42,-20(,191.(*-(dbee(559(-*0(/*/B0*+8(81'4',(1/(!edC? 0+0) 5M&&JH&')#%)W&%T&H'')JP)6$JPM S*,13:(+/8(5*,1.13+,(=+001'04 PRS(,+3J4(.&'(+2.&*01.:(.*(4'.(-2',(4.+/8+084W( (L&1,'(PRS(14(.&'(,'+8(+)'/3:(-*0(8';',*51/)(+/8('/-*031/)(;'&13,'('91441*/( 4.+/8+084(+/8(&+4(50*5*4'8(,191.4(-*0(.*@134(1/(-2',4(6'?)?<(='/h'/'(1/()+4*,1/'7<(1.(8*'4(/*.(&+;'(.&'(3,'+0(+2.&*01.:(.*(45'31-:(-2',( >2+,1.:(5+0+9'.'04(';'/(1-(.&*4'(5+0+9'.'04(+--'3.(;'&13,'('91441*/4?(L1.&(PRS(&+;1/)(/*(810'3.(3*/.0*,(*-(.&'(4.01/)'/3:(+/8( 195,'9'/.+.1*/(.19',1/'(*-(-2',(>2+,1.:(4.+/8+084<(1.(A*2,8(='(3&+,,'/)1/)(.*(-20.&'0(.1)&.'/1/)(;'&13,'(4.+/8+084(.*(*0(=':*/8($&1/+( #O(='3+24'(.&'(9*4.('--'3.1;'(*5.1*/4(*-('91441*/(3*/.0*,(.'3&/*,*)1'4(-*0(9''.1/)($&1/+(O(-*0(,1)&.B82.:(81'4',4(+/8($&1/+(O#(-*0( +,,(81'4',(;'&13,'4(6XSH4(+/8(h'*,:.'(G$U(4:4.'947(+0'(,191.'8(A1.&*2.(,*A(42,-20(-2',(6-2',4(A1.&(De(559(*0(,'44(42,-20(3*/.'/.7? %&'(.'3&/13+,(3*991..''(.&+.(4'.4(-2',(4.+/8+084(14(8*91/+.'8(=:(1/824.0:(0'50'4'/.+.1;'4W(%&'(8';',*59'/.(+/8(9+/+)'9'/.(*-(-2',( >2+,1.:(4.+/8+084(14(,'8(=:(.&'(\+.1*/+,(S'.0*,'29(S0*823.4(+/8(Q2=013+/.4(G.+/8+081h+.1*/($*991..''(6A&13&(14(3+,,'8(%$!be7<( +(3*991..''(9+/+)'8(=:(.&'(G.+/8+081h+.1*/(V891/ */(*-($&1/+(6GV$7 "b <((+/8(+(42=3*991..''(2/8'0(%$!be(14(8'813+.'8(.*( 8';',*59'/.(*-(.&'(-2',(45' */4?(%&'(4'30'.+01+.(*0)+/1h+.1*/(*-(%$!be<((.&'(U'4'+03&(#/4.1.2.'(*-(S'.0*,'29(S0*3'441/)(6U#SS7<( 14(+(0'4'+03&(81;141*/(*-(G1/*5'3<(*/'(*-(.&'(,+0)'4.(*1,(3*95+/1'4(1/($&1/+?(U#SS(14(0'45*/41=,'(-*0(4.+- /)(+/8(9+/+)1/)(%$!be(+/8( 1.4(42=3*991..''<(+4(A',,(+4(-*0(80+-.1/)(-2',(45' */4?(i1,(1/824.0:(0'50'4'/.+.1;'4(+/8('@5'0.4(3,*4'(.*(.&'(1/824.0:(8*91/+.'( %$!be(+/8(1.4(42=3*991..'' */,:(.&0''(*2.(*-(.&'(C"(9'9='04(1/(%$!be(0'50'4'/.('/;10*/9'/.+,(+/8(+2.*9*=1,'(1/.'0'4.4(+/8(.&0''(*2.(*-(.&'("e(9'9='04(*-(.&'(42=3*991..''(+0'(PRS(*0(+2.*(0'50'4'/.+.1;'4?(G23&(+(49+,,(0'50'4'/.+.1*/(-0*9(.&'(PRS(+/8( +2.*(1/824.0:(3*950*914'4(.&'(=+,+/3'(*-(.&'( */4(*/(4'..1/)(/'A(4.+/8+084(82'(.*(.&'(*2.41h'8(1/ 2'/3'(*-(.&'(*1,(1/824.0:g4( 5'045'3.1;'? G9+,,(0' /'01'4(A1.&(8+.'8(.'3&/*,*)1'4(+0'(/*.(3*4.('--'3.1;'(.*(25)0+8'W(#.(14('4.19+.'8(.&+.(+=*2.(Df(*-(-2',(4255,:(1/($&1/+(3*9'4( -0*9(49+,,(0' /'01'4(A1.&(8+.'8(.'3&/*,*)1'4(.&+.(91)&.(/*.(='(3*4.('--'3.1;'(.*(25)0+8' "c?($*/3'0/4(+=*2.(2/'95,*:9'/.(+/8(*.&'0( '3*/*913( (-0*9(-+31,1.:(3,*420'4(1/(.&'(0')1*/4(A&'0'(.&'4'(49+,,(0' /'01'4(+0'(,*3+.'8(3*2,8(3+24'(9*0'(8',+:(1/(.1)&.'/1/)( -2',(4.+/8+084?( 38 See description of the function of the committee at (in Chinese, accessed on March 22, 2010) 39 Communications with VECC (March 12, 2010). c" Ce

15 dd559!eec!d?d dde!eed!c?c dad Ce Cd ( 0+2) #$$% d! " $VUE C! $VUE XY(R\O %$!be %$!be / EPA420-R , IV, IV-63 IV ( ),. ( ) 42 cc Cd

16 H1/+/31+,(=+001'04 U' /'01'4(9+:(/*.(0'3*25(3+51.+,(1/;'4.9'/.(82'(.*(-2',(5013'(3*/.0*,W( U'.+1,(5013'4(*-()+4*,1/'(+/8(81'4',(&+;'(+,A+:4(=''/(4'.(=:(.&'(3'/.0+,()*;'0/9'/.(1/($&1/+?(L1.&*2.(+(9+0J'.(50131/)(9'3&+/149<(1.(14(81-32,.(-*0(.&'(*1,(1/824.0:(.*(0'3*25(3+51.+,(1/;'4.9'/.4( */(0' /'0:(25)0+8'4(6423&(+4(+881/)(8'42,-201h+.1*/( :(+.(0' /'01'47(=:(5+441/)(*/(.&'(&1)&'0(50*823.1*/(3*4.4(.*(3*/429'04?( S01*0(.*(1.4(195,'9'/.+.1*/<([G(RSV('4.19+.'8(.&'(+//2+,(3+51.+,(1/;'4.9'/.(3*4.(-*0(9''.1/)(.&'(2,.0+(,*A(42,-20(-2',(0'>210'9'/.4( 6dDB559(42,-20()+4*,1/'(+/8(81'4',7(A*2,8(='([GX(!?dD(=1,,1*/(6dD(=1,,1*/(UPE7(1/(!eeC(+/8([GX(!?Cc(=1,,1*/(6da?D(=1,,1*/(UPE7( 1/(!eeD Ce?([G(0' /'01'4(A'0'(+=,'(.*(0+14'(5013'4(*-(2,.0+(,*A(42,-20()+4*,1/'(+/8(81'4',(.*(0'3*;'0(1/;'4.9'/.4(-*0(.&'(8'42,-201h+.1*/( 2/1.4 Cd?(%&'(1/30'9'/.+,(5013'(A+4(49+,,(3*95+0'8(.*(.&'(;+01+.1*/(1/(-2',(5013'(82'(.*( */4(1/(*1,(5013'4?(%*(4*,131.(1/824.0:g4( /+/31+,(4255*0.(-*0(0' /'0:(25)0+8'4? %'3&/13+,(=+001'04 ;'(4.+--(1/($UVRG(+/8(.A*( 4.+--(1/(OR$$7(A*0J1/)(*/(-2',4B0',+.'8(0'4'+03&(+/8(0')2,+.*0:(A*0J(+/8(+(,+=*0+.*0:(1/($UVRG(.&+.(5'0-*094(-2',(.'4.1/)?(E2.( *-(;+01*24(-2',(3*95*41.1*/4<(A&13&(14('44'/.1+,(-*0(0'3*99'/81/)(4.+/8+08(45' */4?((#/(+881.1*/<(PRS(&+4(,191.'8(+33'44(8+.+( */(0' /'0:( :(+/8(3+/(*/,:(0',:(*/(.&'(1/824.0:g4(+/+,:414(*-(.&'(3*4.(+/8(.'3&/13+,(195,13+.1*/4(A&'/(3*/418'01/)(+8*5.1/)( 9*0'(4.01/)'/.(4.+/8+084?( 0+2) ]HI%LLHPQM#J%P' %*(+880'44(.&'(=+001'04(18'/.1-1'8(+=*;'<(=',*A(+0'(.&'(#$$%g4(0'3*99'/8+.1*/4(.*(PRS(1/(.&'(/'+0B<(9'8129B(+/8(,*/)'0B.'09(.*(+33','0+.'(1950*;'9'/.(*-(-2',(>2+,1.:(+/8(+,,*A(.&'(+8*5.1*/(*-(-2',(4.+/8+084(.&+.(+0'(3*/414.'/.(A1.&(;'&13,'4(4.+/8+08( 0'>210'9'/.4?(%&'(0'3*99'/8+.1*/4(+0'(+19'8(.*(+880'44(.&'(/''8(-*0(PRS(.*(d7(4''J(.&'(+2.&*01.:(.*(4'.('91441*/B0',+.'8(-2',( +880'44('3*/*913(+/8(4*31+,( (+44*31+.'8(A1.&(.&'(+8*5.1*/(*-(.1)&.'0(-2',(4.+/8+084? #/(.&'(/'+0(.'09<(PRS(4&*2,8(4''J(.&'(+2.&*01.:(.*(4'.(+/8('/-*03'('91441*/B0',+.'8(-2',(5+0+9'.'04<(+/8(1/(.&'(,*/)'0(.'09<(52042'(.*(.&'()*+,(*-(&+;1/)(-2',(+/8(;'&13,'4(0')2,+.'8(+4(*/'(4:4.'9 G''J(0';141*/4(.*(.&'(V10(S*,,2.1*/(S0';'/.1*/(+/8($*/.0*,(Q+A(.*()0+/.(PRS(+2.&*01.:(.*(4'.(+/8(0')2,+.'(-2',(5+0+9'.'04(/'3'44+0:(.*(3*/.0*,(;'&13,'('91441*/4(61/3,281/)(42,-20(,';',47W( Y0+/.1/)(PRS(.&'(,')+,(+2.&*01.:(.*(4'.(+/8('/-*03'('91441*/B0',+.'8(-2',( 3*/.0*,(*-(;'&13,'('91441*/4?(#/(.&'([G<(=*.&(.&'([G(RSV(+/8(.&'($+,1-*0/1+(V10(U'4*203'4(E*+08(6$VUE7(&+;'(.&'(+2.&*01.:(.*( 0')2,+.'(;'&13,'('91441*/4(+/8(-2',(3&+0+3.' (.&+.(+--'3.(;'&13,'('91441*/4 C!?((M+;1/)(.&'(0')2,+.*0:(+2.&*01.:(*/(=*.&(;'&13,'( +/8(-2',(+,,*A4([G(RSV(+/8($VUE(.*(3*/.1/2'(.*(+8*5.(/'A(,191.4(-*0(;'&13,'('91441*/(4.+/8+084(1/(.+/8'9(A1.&(1/30'+41/),:( 4.01/)'/.(-2',(>2+,1.:(0'>210'9'/.4?((#/(.&'(R[<(.&'(X10'3.*0+.'BY'/'0+,(-*0(.&'(R/;10*/9'/.(6XY(R\O7(14(0'45*/41=,'(-*0(4'..1/)(.&'('/;10*/9'/.B0',+.'8(-2',(4.+/8+084(+/8(.&'(X10'3.*0+.'BY'/'0+,(*-(R/.'05014'(+/8(#/824.0:(6XYBR\%U7(4'.4(;'&13,'(4.+/8+084?( L&1,'(.&'(+2.&*01.:(-*0(4'..1/)(-2',(+/8(;'&13,'(4.+/8+084(-+,,4(1/.*(.A*(81;141*/4<(.&':(A*0J(.*)'.&'0(*/(80+-.1/)(/'A(;'&13,'(+/8(-2',( 4.+/8+084?( 40 EPA Regulatory Impact Analysis: Heavy-Duty Engine and Vehicle Standards and Highway Diesel Fuel Sulfur Requirements, EPA420-R , Chapter IV, pp. IV-63 IV See some anecdotal examples in Washington States University Energy Extension Program. Ultra Low Sulfur Diesel. documents/renewables/fuels.pdf (accessed April 29, 2010), and EPA. Retrofits and Cleaner Fuels. EPA website. retrofits.html (accessed April 29, 2010). 42 California is the only state in the US that is allowed to set separate vehicle and fuel standards as long as those standards are more stringent than the federal standards and there is a need for the separate standards to meet compelling and extraordinary conditions. Other states are allowed to adopt California standards. cd Cd

17 $VUE $VUE dc`" dcae!!d $ C" dcaa ( ### O de559 O O O De559 de559 CC ### #O De559 ### O de559 e?e! j e?dc j ###Bt #OBt O ###Bt O #O O C a b 44 Enstrat 2003 Cost of Diesel Fuel Desulphurization for Different Refinery Structures Typical of the Asian Refining Industry c` C!

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g4(4.+--(*/(8';',*51/)(+/8(195,'9'/.1/)(-2',(>2+,1.:(4.+/8+084?( S2042'(9* '4(&+;'('4.+=,14&'8(.&'(0',+.1*/4&15(*-(4','3.'8(-2',(3&+0+3.' <(;'&13,'('91441*/4(+/8(+10(>2+,1.:?((V4(PRS(+8*5.4( 1/30'+41/),:(4.01/)'/.(;'&13,'('91441*/(0')2,+.1*/<(3*/.0*,(*-(-2',(>2+,1.:(A1,,(='3*9'(';'/(9*0'( ,(='3+24'(.&'(5'0-*09+/3'( *-(9+/:(+8;+/3'8('91441*/(3*/.0*,(.'3&/*,*)1'4(3+/(='(195+3.'8((*0(';'/(='(8'4.0*:'8(=:(42,-20(1/(-2',4?(#/(.&'([G<(.&'($VV( RSV(3*2,8(3*/.0*,(*0(50*&1=1.(-2',(*0(-2',(+881.1;'(2/8'0(G'3.1*/(!dd637(1-(52=,13(&'+,.&(A+4('/8+/)'0'8(*0(1-(+2.*9*.1;'('91441*/( 3*/.0*,(4:4.'9(A+4(195+10'8( 3,'+0(,')+,(+2.&*01.:()0+/.'8(.*(RSV(.*(0')2,+.'(-2',(3*/.'/.(+/8(;'&13,'('91441*/4('/+=,'4(.&'(+)'/3:(.*(4'.(4.+/8+084(-*0(-2',(+/8( #/(-2.20'(0';141*/4(*-(.&'(kV10(S*,,2.1*/(S0';'/.1*/(+/8($*/.0*,(Q+Ak<(PRS(4&*2,8(52042'(.&'(0'3*)/1.1*/(*-(-2',4(+/8(;'&13,'(+4(+( 4:4.'9(-*0('--'3.1;'('91441*/(3*/.0*,<(423&(0'3*)/1.1*/(3+/(='3*9'(+(4.0*/)(,')+,(=+414(-*0(PRSg4('--*0.4(*/(4'..1/)(+/8('/-*031/)( -2',(+/8(;'&13,'(0')2,+.1*/? $*/418'0(4255*0.(.*(,'+5-0*))1/)(-0*9($&1/+(###(-2',(4.+/8+084(.*($&1/+(O(4.+/8+084(6deB559(42,-20(3*/.'/.7(/+.1*/A18'(1/(.&'(/'+0(.'09W($&1/+(O(-2',4(A*2,8(/*.(*/,:('/+=,'(.&'(24'(*-(+8;+/3'8('91441*/(3*/.0*,(.'3&/*,*)1'4(1/(/'A(;'&13,'4<(.&':(A*2,8(+,4*(,*A'0( CC?(%&'0'-*0'<(.&'('4.19+.'8(1/30'9'/.+,(3*4.4(81--'0'/3'(='.A''/(,*A'01/)(-2',( 42,-20(,191.(-0*9($&1/+(###(.*($&1/+(#O(6DeB559(42,-207<(+/8(-0*9($&1/+(###(.*($&1/+(O(+0'(+3.2+,,:(49+,,(6e?e!(3'/.4j,1.'0<(*0(e?dC( -'/j,1.'07(-*0(+(.:513+,(0' /'0:(1/($&1/+?($*95+01/)(.&'(3*4.4(+/8(='/'.4(*-()*1/)(-0*9($&1/+(###Bt#OBtO(-2',(4.+/8+084(+/8(-0*9( ='/'.4?(PRS(4&*2,8(4*,131.(4255*0.(-*0(,'+5-0*))1/)(.*($&1/+(O(-2',(4.+/8+084?( 43 Section 211(c) of the current version of CAA states that USEPA may control or prohibit the manufacturer, introduction into commerce, offering for sale or sale of any fuel or fuel additive for use in a motor vehicle, motor vehicle engine, or non-road engine or non-road vehicle (a) if any emission product of such fuel or fuel additive causes, or contributes, to air pollution which may reasonably be anticipated to endanger the public health or welfare, or (B) if emission productions of such fuel or fuel additive will impair to a significant degree the performance of any emission control device or system. 44 Enstrat International Limited "Cost of Diesel Fuel Desulphurization for Different Refinery Structures Typical of the Asian Refining Industry". Final Report prepared for the Asian Development Bank. ca C!

19 ce!ee" "De559 de559 e?dd j CD!ee!!eee559 De559 e?eb j C` ( / Yamaguchi, N., D, Fridley K. Xiaoming 2002 Improving Transport Fuel Quality in China: Implications for the Refining Sector. LBNL ( ) cb C"

20 G.01;'(.*(+,1)/(*/0*+8(+/8(/*/B0*+8(81'4',(42,-20(0'>210'9'/.4W( P+F*0(;'&13,'(9+0J'.4<(423&(+4(.&'([G<(T+5+/(+/8(R20*5'<(&+;'( +,0'+8:(*0(1/(.&'(50*3'44(*-(+,1)/1/)(.&'(42,-20(,191.4(-*0(*/B0*+8(+/8(/*/B0*+8(81'4',?(U1)&.(/*A(.&'0'(14(/*(*- 31+,(81--'0'/.1+.1*/( ='.A''/(*/B0*+8(+/8(/*/B0*+8(81'4',(1/($&1/+<(=2.(+4(*/0*+8(81'4',(0'>210'9'/.4(='3*9'(9*0'(4.01/)'/.<(.&'0'(91)&.(='(+(/''8(-*0( 82+,(4.+/8+084(-*0(*/0*+8(+/8(/*/B0*+8(-2',4?(R;'/(1-(+(82+,(4.+/8+08(14(+8*5.'8<(1/(.&'(/'+0(+/8(,*/)'0(.'09<(PRS(4&*2,8(4.01;'(.*(3*/.1/2'(,*A'01/)(/*/B0*+8(-2',(42,-20(3*/.'/.(+4(1.(.1)&.'/4(*/B0*+8(-2',(4.+/8+084?((M+;1/)(.&'(4+9'(,*A(42,-20(4.+/8+084( -*0(*/B0*+8(+/8(/*/B0*+8(4.+/8+084(A1,,(,1)&.'/(.&'('/-*03'9'/.(=208'/(*/(.&'(0')2,+.*0:(91/14.0:<(+/8(A*2,8(+,4*('/+=,'(.&'( 8'5,*:9'/.(*-(*/0*+8('91441*/(3*/.0*,(.'3&/*,*)1'4(*/(/*/B0*+8('/)1/'4?( PRS(4&*2,8(A*0J(A1.&(*.&'0(91/14.01'4(.*(&',5(2/8'04.+/8(+/8(+880'44('3*/*913(+/8(4*31+,( (+44*31+.'8(A1.&(.&'( +8*5.1*/(*-(.1)&.'0(-2',(4.+/8+084 PRS(4&*2,8(A*0J(A1.&(0',';+/.(91/14.10'4(.*(18'/.1-:(A+:4(.*( /+/3'(1/824.0:g4( :(1/;'4.9'/.(*/(8'42,-201h+.1*/(2/1.4(*0(*.&'0( 3*4.4(.*(1950*;'(-2',(>2+,1.:W(G2=4181'4(-*0(1/824.0:(.*( /+/3'(0' 3*2,8(+,4*('/3*20+)'(4+,'4(*-(.&'(,*A'0(42,-20(-2',?($*/429'0(1/3'/.1;'4(&+;'(50*;'/(.*(='(4233'44-2,(1/(50*9*.1/)('+0,:(.0+/41.1*/(.*(3,'+/'0(-2',4(A&'/($&1/+(4A1.3&'8(.*(2/,'+8'8()+4*,1/'(1/(.&'(,+.'(dcce4?(V(!ee"(4.28:(50'5+0'8(-*0(.&'(V41+/(X';',*59'/.(E+/J( 42))'4.'8(.&+.(0'8231/)(42,-20(3*/.'/.(*-(81'4',(-0*9("DeB559(.*(deB559(A*2,8(0'42,.(1/(+/(1/30'9'/.+,(3*4.(*-(+=*2.(e?dd(UPEj,1.'0( -*0(+(.:513+,($&1/'4'(0' /'0: CD?(V(!ee!(4.28:(42))'4.'8(.&+.(.&'(1/30'9'/.+,(3*4.4(-*0(,*A'01/)(81'4',(42,-20(3*/.'/.(-0*9(!eeeB559(.*(DeB559(A*2,8(='(+=*2.(e?eb(UPEj,1.'0(-*0($&1/'4'(0' /'01'4 C`?(#/(,1)&.(*-(.&'(9+F*0(1/;'4.9'/.4(1/(9*8'0/1h+.1*/(+/8( :( /'01'4(1/(0'3'/.(:'+04<(1.(A*2,8(='(&',5-2,(.*(3*/823.(+/(258+.'8( $&1/+B45'31 3(+/+,:414(.*(='..'0(3&+0+3.'01h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bid. 46 Derived based on the highest cost estimate (2010 estimated cost) of 4.7 US cents per gallon. Yamaguchi, N., D, Fridley and K. Xiaoming Improving Transport Fuel Quality in China: Implications for the Refining Sector. Report No. LBNL ( accessed on March 23, 2010) cc C"