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1 Afghan-Japan Relations: LANDS UNDER THE RISING SUN

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3 Afghan-Japan Relations: LANDS UNDER THE RISING SUN by Haron Amin Commemorating the Centennial Anniversary of of Prince Ayub s Visit to Japan & Celebrating Years of Formal Relations Relations

4 Afghan-Japan Relations: Lands of the Rising Sun Copyright Haron Amin 2007 Embassy of the Islamic Republic of Afghanistan in Tokyo All rights reserved. Except for the quotation of short passages for the purposes of criticism and review, no part of this publication may be reproduced by any mechanical, photographic, or electronic process, or in the form of a phonographic recording, nor may it be stored in a retrieval system, transmitted, or otherwise copied for public or private use, without written permission from the publisher. First published by The Islamic Embassy of Afghanistan in Tokyo in Amin, Haron. Afghan-Japan Relations: Lands of the Rising Sun / Haron Amin Includes bibliographical references Published by The Islamic Embassy of Afghanistan in Tokyo B Nishihara Shibuya-ku, Tokyo Tel: (03) Printed and bound in Tokyo by Morimoto Printing Company, Ltd.

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7 CONTENTS FOREWORD BY LUDWIG ADAMEC PREFACE BY HARON AMIN xi ACKNOWLEDGMENTS xii 1. Ancient Influence and the Personification of Buddha Lapis Lazuli Shared Heritage and Cultural Similarities The Ayyaran: Group of Secret Gallant Knights Bushido.9 2. Historical Relations between Japan and Afghanistan Early Afghan-Japanese Ties: Ayub and Togo Celebrate Asian Victories Japan s Victory and the Rise of Nationalism The Pan-Islamist and Pan-Asianist Advocates The Turko-German Mission in Afghanistan The Revolutionaries Mahendra Pratap ( ) Mitsuru Toyama ( ) Rash Bihari Bose ( ) Subhas Chandra Netaji Bose ( ) The Pan-Asiatic Congress Formal Diplomatic Relations Bilateral Developments Post 9.11 Relations Japan s Role in the Reconstruction of Post-Conflict Afghanistan Current Status and Future Strategy of Japanese Assistance to Afghanistan Breakdown of Japanese Assistance Future Commitments Conclusion.42 TABLE 1: Names of Afghan Officials who visited Japan since 2001 TABLE 2: Names of Japanese VIP Officials who visited Afghanistan since 2001 TABLE 3: Names, Dates and Posts of Afghan Diplomats in Japan TABLE 4: Names, Dates and Posts of Japanese Diplomats in Afghanistan TABLE 5: Ambassador in Charge of Afghanistan Assistance based at the Japanese Foreign Ministry BIBLIOGRAPHY PHOTO GALLERY

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9 Foreword Afghanistan s relations with major powers have been adequately examined, especially relations with Britain, Germany, and the Soviet Union. Some work has been done on relations with Pakistan and Italy, but virtually nothing exists on Afghanistan relations with Japan. Mr. Haron Amin, Afghanistan s ambassador to Tokyo, has helped fill this lacuna with his interesting account of relations with the Land of the Rising Sun. Ambassador Amin points out interesting parallels in cultural and historical actors which may very well go back to a common heritage, derived from ancient contact by way of the Silk Route. Afghanistan, once known as Khorasan - also translates as The Abode of the Rising Sun. Buddhism spread from Afghanistan to Japan as did elements of Zoroastianism. He sees a number of other influences in the cultural development of Afghanistan. Japan s victory in the Russo-Japanese War (1905) showed Afghan and other Asian rulers that a policy of modernization was needed to resist the wave of western imperialism. Early contacts, beginning with Ayub Khan s visit to Japan in 1907, are detailed on the basis of archival sources and tables list diplomatic representatives of both countries. A number of illustrations depict individuals involved in diplomatic contacts. Mr. Amin has done an excellent job and it is hoped that it will help inspire further research into the field of Afghanistan-Japan relations. Ludwig Adamec August 2006, Arizona

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11 Preface When I first arrived here, the mystique of Japan in those cool winter days took on a new dimension. I relished the idea of pursuing the quest for more knowledge and delved myself in books on Japan. My first book was about Matsuo Basho, the 17 th century master of Haiku. The search proved to be both a mesmerizing and humbling experience and I began to fall in love with Japan. Then as time passed on, I began to observe similarities with my own culture and history of all sorts which, I had neither noticed nor experienced anywhere else during my work and travels. As I shared an array of similitude, friends asked me to chronicle them. When the first few pages were being drafted, I was faced with disconnected pieces of an interesting puzzle. Fitting those pieces together suddenly became both fun and rewarding as I began to discover apart from culture interesting historical parallels between Japan and Afghanistan. When faced with lack of material and time difference, as well as distance between Japan and the rest of the world, the research was at times difficult. For instance, there were occasions when I had to wait more than three months for a single item such as photo, a date or a newspaper article. Eventually, the research took over two years as contents were obtained, among other sources, from the British Archives, the US Department of State Archives, Afghan National Archives and experts on Afghanistan. Meanwhile, I established a library within the Embassy and used those resources for additional information. Finally, in July of coinciding with the 75 th anniversary of official bilateral relations - the article was published, after its translation into Japanese, by Jiyu (trans. as Freedom) Magazine. Haron Amin Tokyo

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13 Acknowledgments I must first express my gratitude to two people: Professor Ludwig Adamec for responding to my initial query regarding Prince Ayub s visit to Japan, who encouraged me to conduct the research and reviewed the material compiled and Dr. A. G. Ravan Farhadi for reading the initial draft and offering me some recommendations. I also want to thank Mr. Hideaki Kase for the main text s publication in Jiyu Magazine s July 2006 issue, Mr. Yoshinori Akiyama for arranging the layout process, and friends of the Embassy for printing this updated version. And finally, thank you also Jean Tsang, Hassan Sobman, Masao Sekine, Yuko Ikenishi, Tomie Soude-Nitobe, Dr. Bashir Mohabbat, Jermaine Scott and some Foreign Ministry officials here in Tokyo for helping make this publication possible.

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15 History is past politics; and politics present history. - John Seely

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17 Afghan-Japan Relations

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19 Afghan-Japan Relations: Lands Under The Rising Sun Lands Under the Rising Sun Ernest Renan defined a nation as a soul, a spiritual principle. Only two things, actually, constitute this soul, this principle. One is in the past, the other is in the present. One is the possession in common of a rich legacy of remembrance; the other is the actual consent, the desire to live together, the will to continue to value the heritage which all hold in common. 1 Hence, among the peoples of Asia the peoples of Japan and Afghanistan possess most of the characteristics which are considered basic elements of nationhood national pride, romantic patriotism, sense of superiority and above all, love for freedom. It is very interesting that in the 6 th century A.D., inhabitants who resided in present-day Afghanistan gave their land a new name: Khorāsān, meaning The Abode of the Rising Sun. Khor means sun and āsān means abode. It was around the same time that Japan became known as Nippon or Nihon which means the sun s origin, or where the sun originates, although, it is always translated as the Land of the Rising Sun. Both Japan and Afghanistan thwarted foreign infiltration and occupation for thousands of years. For Japan, the isolation from the mainland separated by the sea provided it security from foreign attacks and an opportunity to mold its own distinct civilization. Japan successfully defended against the Mongolian attacks ( ), maintained limited influence by the Portugese and Spanish traders (16 th -17 th centuries) and subsequently the Dutch and British merchants, and implemented the 1 Hutchinson, John & Smith, Anthony D. Nationalism. (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1994), p. 17 1

20 Haron Amin closure of the country under the Tokugawa Shogunate ( s). It only opened up after the arrival of Commodore Perry (1853) and reforms under the Meiji Restoration (1868). Paradoxically, Afghanistan protected its territory while situated in the heart of the mainland. In fact, its location at the crossroads of various civilizations enabled it to contribute to and borrow from those civilizations. Alexander the Great spent three tiresome years during his Afghan campaign ( B.C.), Genghis Khan suffered a major blow in Bagram (1221), the British were defeated in the three Anglo-Afghan Wars (1839), (1880) and (1919) and the former Soviet Union suffered its first and final defeat in ( ) since its founding in The historical relationship between Afghanistan and Japan is little known to most. Indeed, it is not widely recognized that Afghanistan has in fact had a significantly lasting influence on Japan to this day. There is a firm cultural underpinning for the continuation of the long standing relations between Afghanistan and Japan. The historical relationship between the two nations, including their religious, historical, and diplomatic ties demonstrate the various impacts Afghanistan and Japan have had on each other thus far. 1. Ancient Influence and the Personification of Buddha Although perhaps little known to most Japanese, Afghanistan has had a strong influence on one of the pillars of Japanese religious identity. As the crossroad of numerous civilizations over many centuries, Afghanistan served as the hub of the Silk Route with flow of goods and ideas between Europe and Asia. Both Zoroastrianism and Buddhism spread eastward from Afghanistan to China although the latter eventually made it to Korea and finally to Japan. 2 But there is no doubt that many elements from Zoroastrianism in Japan can be traced back to Afghanistan. The Shunie Otaimatsu Festival in Japan which takes place every year on March 12 th involves burning of trees for religious purposes 3. In present-day rural Afghanistan, locals make fire and smoke 2 Whitefield, Susan. Life Along the Silk Road. (London: John Murray Publishers, 2004) 3 Interview with Ikuo Hirayama, renown Japanese Artist and UNESCO Goodwill Ambassador Volume 2, Issue, May

21 Afghan-Japan Relations: Lands Under The Rising Sun inside their houses on March 21 st, the beginning of the spring season which coincides with the Afghan New Year in order to purify the house from the evil spirits. This practice has been retained from Afghanistan s Zoroastrian past. The founder of this religion, Zoroaster, was killed in northern Afghanistan by invading nomadic tribes from Central Asia in 552 B.C. 4 In the period after Ashoka (232 B.C.) and with Brahmanism s decline in India, Mahayana Buddhism s gestation in Gandhara, an area inclusive of Kabul, Jalalabad and Peshawar, spread along the commercial Silk Route to Turkestan, Mongolia, China, Korea and subsequently Japan. It came to Japan around the 6 th century. By the 8 th century, the existing sects were known as the six sects of Nara. With the coming of Zen Buddhism from China, two sects known as Rinzai and Soto, were introduced. These were later further subdivided into numerous schools. Just the Shingon Sect alone, has been subdivided into 57 sects. While the majority of Japanese belong to these sects, they can be considered believers when it comes to funeral rites, which are quite similar to Afghan funeral rites. 5 When I attended the funeral of Mr. Ikeda, former Japanese Foreign Minister on February 25, 2004 at Aoyama Funeral Hall, I noted the high level of similarity. The only difference was that instead of monks chanting Sutras, Mullahs will be reciting verses from the Holy Qur an in segregated chambers with men in one room and the women in another. Also, in most Buddhist and Shinto Shrines, people offer money which they throw into a wooden box. In Afghanistan, they donate money to mosques as well, in some cases by depositing it in a big bowl outside the mosques. Hence, one can conclude that many similar traditions have been preserved in both places. Yet, in today s Japan, while Buddhist and Shinto teachings are deeply entangled in Japanese everyday life, the Japanese people themselves may not be aware of them. And in Afghanistan, many customs such as a bow similar to the Japanese still common in many places date back to ancient times. Under Kanishka I (125 A.D.), a Kushan ruler known as the Victorious who converted to Buddhism, Gandhara expanded into a vast territory 4 Dupree, Louis. Afghanistan (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1980), p About Japan Series: Japanese Culture (Tokyo: Foreign Press Center, 1999), pp

22 Haron Amin that included parts of the Indus Valley, eastern Afghanistan, central Asia north to the Aral Sea and parts of present-day north-western China and became a Holy Land dotted with monasteries. 6 Statue making eventually evolved into the first artistic portrayal of the Buddha in human form derived from Gandhara s Hellenic past, a direct influence of the Greeks and the divine entity Apollo. The Kushan Kingdom was originally founded by Kajula Kadphises (40-78 A.D.) and brought about a cultural renaissance and the spread of Buddhism in the neighboring China. It is in the period after this that the Buddha statues were carved into the Bamiyan hills (5 th century A.D.). 7 Therefore, it can be said that Buddha s human form, recognized and firmly embedded throughout the Far East and modern-day Japan, originated in Afghanistan during this time. The Buddha statues in Nara and Kyoto speak volumes in this regard. A shared characteristic between them and the Bamiyan Buddha statues is the likeness of their loosely-fitting robes, which the Chinese and Japanese sculptors later replicated. Initially, the Bamiyan statues took their inspiration from the Greek divinity Appolo. These statues were destroyed in March 2001 by the Taliban, who were not educated in Afghanistan but were indoctrinated outside the country with rudimentary teachings and a kind of zeal historically unknown and unfamiliar to Afghans in general. 8 The fact that the statues were preserved for centuries, albeit Afghans conversion to Islam throughout the duration of successive Islamic governments reveals plenty. The strongest cultural influence on Japan has come from China. 9 China s T ang Dynasty had very close relations with Afghanistan. During the Sui and T ang dynasties in the seventh Century A.D., a large number of Afghan Buddhist monks and scholars such as the famous 6 Gandhara flourished from the 1 st to the 5 th centuries A.D. 7 Located along the Silk Route, Bamiyan served as a center of trade, arts and religious activity in the Zoroastrian, Buddhist as well as Islamic eras. In 1222, Genghis Khan wreaked havoc on all of Afghanistan and torched Bamiyan after his grandson was killed by Bamiyan s defenders. 8 Rashid, Ahmed. Taliban: Militant Islam, Oil and Fundamentalism in Central Asia. (UK: I.B.Tauris & Co Ltd, 2000), pp ; Nojumi, Neamatollah, The Rise of the Taliban in Afghanistan: Mass Mobilization, Civil War, and the Future of the Region. (New York: Palgrave, 2002), pp Reischauer, Edwin O. Japan: The Story of a Nation (Boston: Tuttle Publishing, Fourth Edition, 1990), p. 9. 4

23 Afghan-Japan Relations: Lands Under The Rising Sun Hushien and his five companions, as well as craftsmen were sent to China and set forth on a mission to North America to preach Buddhism 1,000 years before Christopher Columbus. 10 In 632, when the Chinese pilgrim Xuanzang visited Afghanistan s Balkh, Kunduz, Bamiyan, Kapisa, Laghman and Kandahar provinces, he recorded 1,230 Buddhist temples and counted more than 8,000 monks, while there were many more across the rest of the country. In particular, the majestic splendor of the Bamiyan Buddha statues completely overwhelmed him. 1.1 Lapis Lazuli The first object to come to Japan from Afghanistan was the semiprecious stone Lapis Lazuli known in Japan as Ruri though no person is believed to have come to Japan at that time. 11 In Buddhism, Lapis Lazuli is treated as one of the meaning seven treasures which shine in heaven. Belts and mirrors decorated with Lapis Lazuli can be found in Shosoin, an old deposit house of Todaiji Temple in Nara. More recently, The National Research Institution for Cultural Properties in Tokyo discovered that Lapis Lazuli was used in the wall painting of Takamatsuzuka Kofun in Asuka village in Nara. In addition to Lapis Lazuli, there is proof that gold lace was also brought to Japan from Afghanistan. In a ruin in Osaka, gold lace was excavated and found to be exactly the same as a piece of gold lace excavated from a Shiberghan ruin in northern Afghanistan Geddes, Gary. The Kingdom of Ten Thousand Things: An Impossible Journey from Kabul to Chiapas (Harper Collins Publishers, LTD., 2005) 11 There is no firm evidence as to what language the words Lapis Lazuli come from. Some say that Lapis derives from Latin meaning stone. Others say that the name lapis comes from word pencil in Spanish. Another group argues that it is called (lajaward) in Farsi meaning deep blue sky while others argue that lazuli derives from the Arabic word (al-lazuwar). Persian legend says the sky owes its color to a giant slab of lapis upon which the earth rests. To Buddhists, lapis lazuli brought peace of mind and dispelled evil thoughts. Yet, what is certain is most important supplies of Lapis Lazuli are found in Badakhshan, Afghanistan and Ovalle, Chile. 12 The usual word for prefecture in Japanese is ken. But in the case of Osaka, the Japanese use fu. 5

24 Haron Amin 1.2. Shared Heritage and Cultural Similarities Unlike Western culture which is guilt-based, both Afghanistan and Japan share a common culture of shame. According to Ruth Benedict, the author of The Chrysanthemums and the Sword, true shame cultures rely on external sanctions for good behavior, not, as true guilt cultures do, on an internalized conviction of sin (1992. Rutland and Tokyo: Charles E. Tuttle). There are hundreds of common cultural codes that are identical in many ways between Afghanistan and Japan. Some examples include Anmoku no Ryokai ( unspoken understanding ), Ashirau ( the diplomatic brush-off ), Bushido (the way of the warrior), furusato ( longing for a spiritual home ), Gochisoh Sama ( thanks for the hospitality ), Kato Kyoso ( compete or die ), Kuchi-Komi ( by word of mouth ), Menmoku Maru Tsubure ( losing one s face ), Otsukare Sama ( above and beyond the call ), Shibutosa ( fight to the death ), Shido ( a word from big brother ) and Sode no shita ( a little something up the sleeve ). 13 Ambassador Kinichi Komano, the first Japanese Ambassador to a post-conflict Afghanistan summarized similarities as such: First of all, Japanese people have their own very old culture and civilization, and they are grateful to the Afghan people because of Buddhism, which entered Japan from India through Afghanistan, China and Korea. This shared history is well understood by almost all Japanese people. Also, because of the same experience or situation that the two nations had in the past century or so, that is, the complete devastation of the country due to World War II in the case of Japan, and the civil war in Afghanistan s case. 14 They showed a great resilience in their efforts toward reconstruction and rehabilitation of their own country, their own rights and their own society. Moreover, in this process most of them have shown an emphasis on education and are fully aware of the importance of education for the future of the country. This is of utmost importance. The people of Japan and the people of Afghanistan also have in common their warm hospitality toward people, to their friends. The Japanese who are here don't feel isolated or sorry 13 De Mente, Boye Lafayette. Japan s Cultural Code Words: 233 Key Terms That Explain the Attitudes and Behavior of the Japanese. (Boston: Tuttle Publishing, 2004). 14 The author s view is that there was an invasion followed by a foreign-sponsored occupation. 6

25 Afghan-Japan Relations: Lands Under The Rising Sun about being away from their home country. I think the same holds true for Afghan people in Japan. 15 It is these ancient parallels between Japan and Afghanistan that have had a lasting influence to this day with imprints across the region The Ayyārān: Group of Secret Gallant Knights Ayyārān, which literally means warriors, was a popular movement that emerged around the 8 th century A.D. in Afghanistan under the Abbasid Khilafat when it later ruled major parts of the Eastern Islamic world. 16 The movement took on different names in different countries within and beyond the region. However, one distinct thing that happened in Khorasan or present-day Afghanistan, was that it gradually merged together with Islamic mysticism. 17 With the emergence of Ayyārān due to the prevailing political and social circumstances, the movement eventually posited a sort of noninstitutional national authority in Afghanistan against foreign occupation and domestic repression. Ayyārān became an instantaneous grass-root movement where many formed their circles in opposition to Arab dominance and oppression in major cities of Afghanistan and Iran. These ancient activists strictly followed certain codes of honor, while pursuing their moral quest with fierce loyalty around Jus Ad Bellum. 18 The moral codes of an Ayyār included helping the destitute, persisting patiently through hardship, acting with a generous heart and telling the truth. Their emphasis on bravery and fair play were put to the test as they mastered combat skills such as wrestling, marksmanship, swordsmanship, stick fighting, horseriding and so on. 15 Interview with Ambassador Komano for Afghan News, Volume 1, Issue 1, June 2004, Published by the Embassy. 16 Ayyaran is plural for Ayyar, meaning warrior. See definition on p.1585, Anwari, Fahang-e-Fishordeh Sukhan, Iran. 17 Yaqin, Ghulam Haider. Ayyaran wa Kaka haye Khurasan. (Kabul: Wezarat-e- Talim wa Tarbia press, 1365 Hijri Shamsi which corresponds to 1986 A.D.) p Translates as Just Cause 7

26 Haron Amin It did not take long for a group of Ayyārān, gathered under the leadership of Yaqub Lais ibn Saffār or Saffāri in Sistan, to remove the Abbasid Governor who had ruled his domain with a heavy fist from western Afghanistan. Led by Yaqub-e- Lais-e Saffārī who was born in Zaranj, a district in present-day Nimroz Province the Ayyārān soon established the Saffārid Dynasty in Afghanistan and in parts of Iran in 872 A.D. Later, he even challenged the Abassid Khilafat in Baghdad. In the 8 th and 9 th centuries, the Ayyārān movement existed with specific organizational structure in the form of political parties. 19 It survived until Amir Abdul Rahman Khan (ruled from 1880 to 1901), also known as the Iron Amir of Afghanistan, who banned the Ayyaran movement after a feud between two masters led to disruption of order within Kabul city. 20 Ayyārān also played a very significant role in popular uprising of the Afghans against foreign occupation and domestic oppression and social injustices. Although the Ayyārān has disappeared from Afghanistan, the values emulated by the movement are still revered in Afghan culture. The great courage and sacrifice with which the Afghans repelled three British invasions and the Soviet invasion are codes derived from the Ayyārān movement. During the Soviet invasion alone, more than one-and-a-half million Afghans lost their lives in the name of defending their honor, religion and homeland. Both Abu Muslim Khurasani and the Late Ahmad Shah Massoud, Afghanistan s National Hero who was assassinated on September 9 th, 2001, can be called the most noble among the Ayyārān. And interestingly, certain aspects of their lives mirror those of Saigo Takamori and Sakamoto Ryoma as followers of Bushido Ghobar, Mir Ghulam Muhammad. Afghanistan Dar Maseer-e- Taareekh (Peshawar: Maiwand Publishers, vol. 1., 2000), p Yaqin, Ghulam Haider. Ayyaran wa Kaka haye Khurasan. (Kabul: Wezarat-e- Talim wa Tarbia Press, 1365 Hejri Shamsi which corresponds to 1986 A.D. ), p Jansen, Marius B. Sakamoto Ryōma and the Meiji Restoration (New York: Columbia University Press, 1994) and Ravina, Mark. The Last Samurai: The Life and Battles of Saigo Takamori (New Jersey: John Wiley & Sons, Inc., 2004). 8

27 Afghan-Japan Relations: Lands Under The Rising Sun 1.4. Bushido It is said that without understanding Bushido or the way of the warrior and feudalism one will not truly understand Japan. 22 According to Nitobe, Bushido is the code of moral principles which the knights were required or instructed to observe. It is not a written code. 23 Although in existence since 1185, the beginning of feudalism and of the Shogunate form of government, it was codified by a Confucian scholar named Soko Yamaga for the first time in mid This was the period under the Tokugawa Shogunate which finally ended the constant wars which drained the Samurai. Known as the Edo period, this era witnessed the integration of many samurai into government positions. The most famous story on the subject is The Tale of the Forty-Seven Ronin, which features a disciple of Yamaga as the lead figure. 24 A master draws his sword against an official of the Shogun who has insulted him, and the Shogun orders the former to commit seppuku. As a result, his samurai followers become masterless warriors. Out of loyalty to their deceased master, they decide to murder the Edo official. They finally trap the official and kill him. Their sacrifices included the deaths of parents, wives, and children. Hence, they become the heroes of their loyalty to their master. Finally out of loyalty to the Shogun, they must die by seppuku in the name of the highest loyalty of all. Bushido entails elements from Buddhism, Shintoism, Confucianism, and Zen teachings. The moral basis and the seven virtues of Bushido include a highly developed sense of justice or rectitude, courage, benevolence, politeness, veracity and sincerity, a highly developed sense of honor, honesty, loyalty to the state and one s lord, self control and seppuku. 25 If one were to summarize the traits associated with Bushido, having integrity is key to adhering to Bushido. 22 When lecturing to university and school students, the author encourages his audience to learn Japanese history and not to forget the spirit of Bushido. 23 Nitobe, Inazo. Bushido: The Soul of Japan (Boston, Tuttle Publishing, 2001), p Allyn, John. The 47 Ronin Story (Boston: Tuttle Publishing, 1970) 25 Nitobe says that seppuku was not a mere suicidal process. It was an institution, legal and ceremonial. And invention of Middle Ages, it was a process by which a warrior could expiate their crimes, apologise for errors, escape from disgrace, redeem their friends, or prove their sincerity (p. 116). 9

28 Haron Amin From an early age, the Samurai were taught spear-fighting, swordfighting, jujutsu, archery, horsemanship, military tactics, ethics, literature, history and calligraphy. With introduction of Western style commercial activities in 1870, The Soul of Japan witnessed a great shock. But the spirit of Bushido continues to survive in Japan, as the spirit of the Ayyārān still inhabits the soul of the Afghan people Historical Relations between Japan and Afghanistan There are some shockingly similar historical parallels between Afghanistan and Japan. In the 1860 s, both Afghanistan and Japan launched modern reforms. Amir Sher Ali, the ruler of Afghanistan from and , introduced a series of modern reforms, establishing new administrative zones and a new national army similar to those in Europe. Amir Sher Ali also abolished the feudal system of tax-farming, set up the postal system, and published the first Afghan weekly, the Shams al-nahar (trans. Sun of the Day ). Unfortunately, caught between Tsarist Russia and British India, Afghanistan s geographical size in the 19 th century struggle known as the Great Game suffered a series of blows. Under Ahmad Shah Durrani in 1747, the Afghan Empire extended from Nishapur (present-day Iran) to Pani Pat (present-day India), and from Bukhara (present-day Uzbekistan) to Karachi (present-day Pakistan) or from the Arabian Sea to the Indian Ocean. In 1868, Japan adopted a series of modern reforms under what became known as the Meiji Restoration and changed the name for the year period to Meiji, meaning Enlightened Rule. The drastic changes were institutionalized under fukoku kyohei and a Five Article Oath (also called the Charter Oath), was issued by the Emperor which ruled out ancient evil customs and sought knowledge all over the world. 27 However, both the Japanese Emperor and the Afghan Amir remained 26 De Mente, Boye Lafayette.The Japanese Samurai Code: Classic Strategies for Success. (Boston: Tuttle Publishing, 2004). 27 Fukoku kyohei translates as a rich country and a strong military. 10

29 Afghan-Japan Relations: Lands Under The Rising Sun suspicious of powers which were militarily more advanced and particularly in the vicinity. In 1870, Amir Sher Ali Khan issued the first postal stamps. 28 Its commemorative stamp was issued in Japan followed suit in It was the following year, when the word Afghanistan appeared for the first time in Japanese newspapers. 29 Later, in 1873, Tokyo Nichi Nichi Shimbun (the former name of Mainichi Shimbun) published a story on Afghanistan. In 1887, the Asahi Shimbun wrote an extensive article on Bamiyan Early Afghan-Japanese Ties: Ayub and Togo Celebrate Asian Victories It is interesting that diplomatic relations between Japan and Afghanistan did not formally occur until the 20 th century. Yet, General Ayub Khan, the victor in the British defeat during the Second Anglo-Afghan War was the first Afghan to visit Japan. As Admiral Heihachiro Togo s guest of honor, Ayub was well received in celebrations marking Asian victories over European powers. Togo also was known as a hero for his role in the Russo-Japanese War ( ). Both the Afghan and Japanese victories had sent rays of hope for independence to many colonized countries across the globe. Sardar (Prince) Ayub Khan, known as Victor of Maiwand, was the great hero of the Second Anglo-Afghan War ( ). A commander well-versed in modern warfare and an able General, the Sardar had on July 27, 1880 decisively defeated a British force led by Brigadier-General George Burrows in an open battle at Maiwand, forty miles west of Qandahar by virtually wiping out all British forces. 30 Ayub s success laid in seizing high ground before the battle began. According to Tanner, the first shock to the British was that the Afghans 28 The stamps were round in shape and printed in black with a lion s head derived from the King s first name, Sher meaning lion, surrounded by text in Dari. 29 Maeda, Kosaku & Sekine, Masao. Nihon Afghanistan Kanke Zenshi. (Tokyo: Akashi Shoten, 2006), p Hopkirk, Peter. The Great Game: on Secret Service in High Asia. (London: John Murray Publishers, Ltd, 1990). 11

30 Haron Amin had thirty well-handled guns to their twelve. 31 Afghan heroine of Maiwand, Malalai had been heard shouting out the following poem as she entered the battlefield to hold up the Afghan flag: Young love! If you do not fall in the battle of Maiwand, By God, someone is saving you as a symbol of shame! Roughly forty years before, the British had suffered a major defeat that was by far larger in scale. In their first imperial defeat in the first Anglo-Afghan war ( ), the British lost a total of 16,000 troops with only one survivor, Dr. Brydon. This battle was known as the Death March costing the British 20 million Sterling Pounds which led to the reshuffling of the cabinet in London. In a final attempt to have its martial reputation restored, General George Pollack, in September 1842, wreaked vengeance on Kabul by torching and plundering the city, which destroyed much of the rest of the city, before finally leaving with his entire British force. It took many years before the Forward Policy witnessed a decline. General Ayub and his entourage, including British Army Major Whyte and Mr. Aminullah Khan who later became Deputy Justice Minister of Afghanistan, left Lahore on January 12, 1907 for a long trip to Japan aboard the Kawachi Maru and arrived in Kobe on February On the 18 th, he came to Tokyo to visit the naval academy. Ayub s long trip ended on March 20 aboard the Manila. 33 He arrived back in Lahore on April 8, According to original British archival sources, in Japan the General was extremely well-received everywhere he went. 34 He visited regiments of the Imperial Guard in their barracks and a military college for officers where he lunched with the Commandant. In addition, he visited the principal naval dockyard and was hosted for lunch by Naval 31 Tanner, Stephen. Afghanistan: A Military History from Alexander the Great to the fall of the Taliban (Cambridge: Da Capo Press, 2002), p Aminullah Khan s grandfather Arsala Khan had served as the first Foreign Minister under Amir Sher Ali Khan; and Aminullah s grandson served as Foreign Minister in the Mujahideen Government (1992) and has served as Vice-President, Finance Minister, Senior Adviser and Commerce Minister and currently as the Senior Cabinet Minister under President Hamid Karzai. 33 Based on Ambassador Tabibi s letter No to Foreign Minister Etemadi dated 21/12/1347 (10 March 1968). 34 Ludwig Adamec s to the author dated June 22, 2004 based on original British archival sources. 12

31 Afghan-Japan Relations: Lands Under The Rising Sun Commander-in-Chief Admiral Hikonojou Kamimura. He was received by Count Sigenobu Okuma, the Minister of War and Marine, Admiral Heihachiro Togo, and the Generals Yasukata Oku and Maresuke Nogi. Admiral Togo was the hero of the Battle of Tsushima (1905) and General Nogi was the hero of the capture of Port Arthur (1905). 35 In a gesture of empathy and respect for his hosts, the Sardar donated 200 Yen (estimated now to be roughly equal to 1,600,000 Yen ) to Tokyo Haihei In, the Tokyo home for the soldiers disabled in the Russo-Japanese War, which was established in 1907 in Shibuya-ku and later moved to Sugamo, Toshima-ku. Ayub never accepted the legitimacy of Amir Abdul Rahman or his cousin and successor, Amir Habibullah. It was Yaqub Khan, Ayub s own brother who had signed the treaty of Gandumak on May 26, 1879 which was to establish eternal peace and friendship between Afghanistan and Great Britain. This treaty, signed in return for full British support, obligated Yaqub Khan, to conduct relations with Foreign States, in accordance with the advice and wishes of the British Government. Abdul Rahman had expelled Sardar Ayub to British India. When Amir Habibullah went to British India in 1907 on an official visit, it was arranged for Sardar Ayub to travel to any European country or America due to a concern that the latter might return to Afghanistan in an attempt to disrupt the situation and take over power. It was Sardar Ayub who, out of utmost respect due to the Japanese victory in the Russo-Japanese War, sought to travel to Japan Japan s Victory and the Rise of Nationalism Seraj ul-akhbar (translated as Torch of the News ), a modernist, nationalist and anti-imperialist newspaper began publication in Kabul in 1911 under the able Mahmood Tarzi, a writer and journalist who had lived for years in Constantinople and Damascus. Seraj ul-akhbar was read in places such as Turkey, the Caucasus, Turkestan, India and Japan, where ideas and words were revered as an art unto themselves. 35 On September 13, 1912, the day of the Emperor Meiji s funeral, out of devotion General Nogi and his wife committed ritual suicide in order to follow their Emperor to the grave. 13

32 Haron Amin Focusing on modernization, the paper looked at America and Japan as successful engines of progress that provided alternatives to the European models. This he advocated particularly in order to repel the constant British and Tsarist onslaught. In particular, Tarzi emphasized Japan as a model for the development of all Asiatic countries, for he explained that despite wishing to duplicate European progress, the Japanese did not lose their customs or their way of life. In 1919, Tarzi became Foreign Minister and under King Amanullah attempted to establish bilateral relations with Japan. Unfortunately, the Japanese were wrongfully advised by the British and delayed diplomatic contacts. Seraj-ul-Akhbar expressed deep sympathy for the Ottoman Empire and went so far as to call British India dar-al harb or the abode of war. 36 Tarzi was deeply influenced by the thoughts of Sayed Jamaluddin Afghani, known as al-afghani, who was born in 1838 in Kunar s Asadabad District in eastern Afghanistan and died in Constantinople in Having traveled to India, Iran, Turkey, the Middle East and Europe, Al-Afghani was in essence the founder of pan-islamism. A prominent scholar of Islam and flamboyant anti-colonialist, antiabsolutist agitator, he clashed with Muslim monarchs. In an exchange of polemics in Paris in 1883 with the French philosopher, historian and positivist Ernest Renan, he refuted the latter s views on the incompatibility of Islam and modernization and established considerable fame for himself in the Parisian intellectual circles. 37 Renan later wrote: The freedom of his thought, his noble and loyal character made me believe during our conversation that I had before me, brought to life again, one of my old acquaintances, Avicenna, Averroes, or another of those great infidels who represented during five centuries the tradition of the human spirit. Afghani s political initiative of pan-islamism (ittihad-i islam) envisaged mobilization of Muslim nations against western imperialism and ascension to power, particularly military, through modern technology. Further, Afghani s advocacy of independence for all Muslim nations has 36 Nawid, Senzil K. Religious Response to Social Change in Afghanistan : King Aman-Allah and the Afghan Ulama. (Costa Mesa: Mazda Publishers, Inc., 1999), p Keddie, N.R. An Islamic Response to Imperialism, Answer of Jamal al-din to Renan Journal des Debats (Paris, May 18, 1883), p

33 Afghan-Japan Relations: Lands Under The Rising Sun been a key factor in the development of the so-called Islamic nationalism and influenced such Muslim figures as Muhammad Iqbal, Muhammad Ali Jinnah and Abul-Kalam Azad in the subcontinent of India and Namik Kemal, Said Nursi and Mehmet Akif Ersoy in the Ottoman Turkey. Al-Afghani is considered a pioneer of freedom movements both in Asia and Africa. Afghani s eloquent ideology found an efficient messenger in Tarzi, who was a mentor to Amir Habibullah s sons, Amanullah and Enayatullah, both of whom married Tarzi s daughters. Amanullah, who succeeded his father, was particularly influenced by Tarzi s ideas about modernization beliefs and favorable opinion about Japanese attempt at modernization while preserving traditions. Soon after the Russo-Japanese War, King Habibullah had Tarzi translate a book from Turkish to Persian, which left a strong and lasting impression on its Afghan readers. In Afghanistan, both modernists and nationalists were greatly impressed with Japan s success in the Russo-Japanese War especially because it was Asiatic. Trazi had translated a text from Turkish on the Russo- Japanese War into local Dari, which was widely read by the intellectuals as well as Amir Habibullah. They viewed Japan as a country that could modernize and simultaneously retain its traditions, national culture and monarchy. 38 As a consequence, the modernists and nationalists hoped for the establishment of formal cordial relations between Afghanistan and Japan. Furthermore, for modernists, Japan was a clear model for Afghanistan because it also had strong foundations of independence and freedom. 39 In addition, the end of the Russo-Japanese War and the subsequent Russian Revolution of 1905 had resounding effects on Asia, increasing unrest and intensifying nationalist and reformist elements in the Ottoman Empire, Persia, China, Mongolia, India and Afghanistan. 38 Schinasi, May. Afghanistan at the Beginning of the Twentieth Century: Nationalism and journalism in Afghanistan; A Study of Seraj ul-akhbar ( ), (Naples: Instituto Universitario Orientale, 1979). 39 Seraj-ul Akhbar, 3 rd Year, No. 2, pp

34 Haron Amin Perhaps the biggest trigger for the immediate rise of Afghan nationalism was the Anglo-Russian Convention of 1907 on which Amir Habibullah had not even been consulted. 40 It came as a shock to Afghan nationalists who feared for the future of Afghan independence. They regarded this agreement as effectively eliminating traditional aggressive rivalry between the two competing empires, and thought it would spark the creation of further agreements which would only be detrimental to Afghanistan. While diplomatic movements from all sides increased and the anxiety among the Muslim nations of Asia, Japan s success with regard to modernization were a catalyst for revolutionary ideologists. One such revolutionary was the Indian Muslim known as Maulana Barakatullah who visited Tokyo in May, The Pan-Islamist and Pan-Asianist Advocates But beyond stirring nationalist sentiments in Afghanistan, Iran or Turkey, what the Japanese victory against the Russians meant to Muslim masses under domination by the West was whether Japan could serve as either Savior of Islam or as Savior of Asia against Western colonialism. In fact, some believed that Japan could serve both causes. The seeds of such advocacy were rooted in an open-minded policy during the Meiji period in which the belittlement of Muslim civilization was not well received by certain circles in Japan for they noticed that such defamation would only justify Western imperialism. As such, the argument for Japanese Pan-Asianist elements was to foster links with their Pan-Islamist friends throughout the region. These Muslim elements met in Kabul, Istanbul, Mecca and Medina, San Francisco and Tokyo. Highly critical of Westernization and Europeanization of their Muslim lands, many pan-islamist intellectuals looked at Japan as an alternative model to emulate and without losing the fabric of their culture or to convert to Christianity. Mustafa Kamil and Ahmad Fadzli Beg in Egypt, Mehmed Akif in Turkey, Mahmud Tarzi in Afghanistan, Maulana 40 This agreement concluded between Russia and Great Britain on August 31, 1907 to ensure perfect security on their respective frontiers in Central Asia and to maintain in these regions a solid and lasting peace. Amir Habibullah was not informed of the negotiations and saw it as an attempt to manage the affairs of the region without the countries, especially Afghanistan, involved. 16

35 Afghan-Japan Relations: Lands Under The Rising Sun Barakatullah in British India, Abdul Rasheed Ibrahim, a Tartar in Russia were among such Muslim intellectuals. In fact, Beg, Barakatullah and Ibrahim jointly published an English paper in Tokyo called the Islamic Fraternity, which advanced the Pan-Islamist and Pan-Asianist rhetoric soon to be stopped under British pressure. However, at the time Japan and the Islamic world had not established diplomatic relations as the majority of Muslim lands were under Western Domination. Among the Pan-Islamist and the Pan-Asianist figures, we will later only explore the lives of those who were directly or indirectly linked to Kabul The Turko-German Mission in Afghanistan As the Pan-Islamic movement grew in the Muslim world, the Turks and the Germans actively sought to draw support from Afghanistan and Persia. The Hentig-Niedermayer Expedition was conceived in August 1914 by the German general staff for the purpose of revolutionizing British India, inducing Afghanistan to attack India, and securing Iran as a bridge from the Ottoman Empire to Afghanistan. 41 The delegation was headed by two Germans, Lieutenant Werner Otto von Hentig and Captain Oskar von Niedermayer with other members consisting of Kazem Bey (Ottoman Turk), and Raja Mahendra Pratap (an Indian Hindu leader). 42 This officer wears a South West African Police slouch hat (pinned up at the right side with a brass Imperial Crown- although in photos Niedermeyer himself doesn't pin his hat up), police tunic (featuring the distinctive green collar but without insignia or cuff braiding) worn open at the collar and khaki cord riding breeches. He carries two pistols, one of which is a naval issue long pistol. The bandolier and rifle appear to be private purchase items. 43 Maulana Barakatullah (an Indian Muslim leader), who had had visited Tokyo two years before, was also a member of the Expedition. In September 1915, the expedition entered Afghanistan through Iran and 41 Niedermayer was promoted to the rank of a General during WWII. He was captured in Berlin during the Nazi defeat and subsequently died in Russian captivity. 42 Pratap was to later play an important role in the Indian movement against the British, and as a friend of the Afghan King, he appealed to the Japanese revolutionaries, especially Mitsuru Toyama

36 Haron Amin stayed until 22 May When they were welcomed by the governor of Herat in western Afghanistan who immediately ordered new uniforms for the expedition, they believed that their dignity was partially restored. With letters of support and credentials from William Wilhelm II, German Emperor and Mohammed Reshad Khames, the Ottoman Sultan, the Hentig-Niedermayer delegation attempted to draw Afghanistan into the war, using religious and moral pressure as well as promising military and financial assistance. Prior to the arrival of the delegation in September 1915, probably all of Habibullah s negotiations with the Central Powers during World War I simply reflected the usual Afghan game of positive neutrality, waiting to see which side would win, and being prepared for either eventuality. After much consideration, the Amir forced the delegation to agree to a treaty, under which the Germans agreed to give the Afghans 100,000 rifles, 300 cannon, and 20 million in gold. However, the expedition s immediate goal of an Afghan attack on British India collapsed and the aid never precipitated. The Amir hinted that he would attack India but only after the victorious Expedition entered Afghanistan to lead the assault. 45 While the Expedition s immediate goal of an Afghan attack on British India collapsed, it was not a complete failure. The Expedition made Afghan modernists realize that in order for Afghanistan to initiate a modernization program, they would first have to be completely independent from British influence. Impacting the political component of the Anglo-Afghan relations, it also led to deployment of a large contingent of British forces - amassed at Afghan border which could otherwise have been deployed in the European theater of war. This shows that the Amir indeed took his time while playing both sides. He eventually proclaimed Afghanistan s neutrality despite the fact that the Conservatives, led by Amir s brother, Nasrullah, and the modernists, led by Tarzi were supportive of the Hentig-Niedermayer Expedition The British Consulate in Mashhad, Iran, had been informed of the Hentig- Niedermayer Expedition and by the time it reached the border of Afghanistan, members had been stripped of all their equipment as well as their uniform. 45 P. 94, Adamec In 1970, King Zahir Shah invited Von Hentig to Kabul as his guest. During an extravagant reception at the Ministry of Foreign Affairs, the original copy of the letter drafted by the British Viceroy in India addressed to King Habibullah asking 18

37 Afghan-Japan Relations: Lands Under The Rising Sun The defeats inflicted on the Ottoman Empire during the Italian-Ottoman War in 1911, and the War of the Balkan States in 1912 had also led to a pan-islamic Movement across Asia, which was further impacted by World War I. Being a Muslim Empire, the Ottoman losses to the British, Russian and French were not well received in Afghanistan. Paradoxically, the fact that the Ottoman Empire and Germany were close to Japan bode well with Afghans. Afghans as part of the Muslim Ummah viewed the Ottoman Empire to be the center of Islamic Khilafat. Cognizant of the British defeats by Afghans, the antiimperialist, anti-christian sentiments especially gained momentum amongst the Muslims of India and encouraged them to mobilize. The sentiments later also influenced Afghanistan s own movement to restore sovereignty over her foreign affairs The Revolutionaries During its quest for restoring autonomy over her foreign affairs, Afghanistan attempted to establish contact with various capitals and in Asia enlisted the help of revolutionaries to help the continent rid itself of foreign aggression and occupation Mahendra Pratap ( ) Mahendra Pratap received his education under British headmasters and Muslim teachers in India. After devoting his attention to questions of social and educational reforms and other constructive activities, Pratap threw himself into a still higher cause of liberating India from the British. On December 20, 1914, at the age of 28, he left India for Europe to gain outside support. He had become a big menace there for the foreign rule in India, so much so that the British Government of India declared a reward on his head, attached his entire estate and declared him a fugitive. the latter not to receive the Turko-German delegation was shown to him. Von Hentig was astonished and confessed that the letter he carried from the German Emperor in 1915 to King Habibullah was drafted on a small paper. Yet, despite that, the Afghan Amir stationed them in the Bagh-e-Babur Garden, one of the most prestigious Royal sites in Kabul. 19

38 Haron Amin As part of his work in the Hentig-Niedermayer Expedition, Pratap established the first Provisional Government of India in Kabul in December 1915 with himself as President. This government carried on work on various fronts including the diplomatic fronts by establishing relationships with anti-british governments such as Turkey, Germany, China as well as Japan. He collaborated with independence movements in India such as the Ghadar Party. 47 He also worked closely with several Indian revolutionaries including Mohammed Barakatullah, Rash Bihari Bose and Subhas Chandra Bose. 48 Pratap also frequently visited Germany and the Soviet Union to solicit support and political recognition. In order to make preparations for a commercial treaty between Afghanistan and Japan and seek Japanese support, Pratap was in Japan from 1922 to It is here that in 1934 Rash Behari Bose introduced Pratap to Mitsuru Toyama. 49 Known as the Afghan Patriot in Japan, Pratap was issued an Afghan passport by King Amanullah from 1921 to During the war, the Japanese asked him to help on the invasion of India by Japan. Pratap made the decision contingent upon formation of Indian Army from South Asia. Japan rejected. It is because of the rejection that Subhas Chandra Bose, another influential Indian revolutionary, was sent from Germany to Japan to form an interim Free India Government. Based on the archives of the Afghan Embassy in Tokyo, Pratap stayed in Japan until 1946 and returned to India after 47 The aim of the Ghadar (Mutiny) Party was to overthrow the British rule by using force and thereby free India from foreign domination. 48 Rash Bihari was one of the founding members of the Ghadar Party ( ) of which Barakatullah was also a member. In order to gain support from enemies of the British, Barakatullah was sent to Kabul by the Ghadar Movement to organize this work. As a close friend of Afghan King Amanullah he joined Pratap and other anti-british revolutionaries in Kabul and consequently formed the Indian Provisional Government. Barakatullah was appointed its Prime Minister. 49 Ikawa, Satoshi & Kobayashi, Hiroshi. Hito Arite Toyama Mitsuru to Genyosha (2003), p Amanullah ruled from 1919 to

39 Afghan-Japan Relations: Lands Under The Rising Sun Indian independence. 51 Pratap was guest of His Majesty, King Zahir Shah for ten days in Mitsuru Toyama ( ) It was during Pratap s visit to Japan in 1922 that he met Mitsuru Toyama, a renowned Japanese nationalist and a revolutionary. Toyama was perhaps the most notable leader of the Genyosha, a Japanese nationalist society based in Fukuoka that was founded in 1881 with the goal of safeguarding Japan and identifying Russia as the only force threatening their influence in the region. Japan was not too alarmed about China as it won the 1894 Sino-Japanese War fought over Korea. Later Toyama and Ryohei Uchida formed Kokuryukai. Japan won the Russo-Japanese War. Toyama is also said to have been an opponent of all established governments in Asia. He welcomed dissidents from China, India and the Philippines who were known to convene at his home in Shibuya, Tokyo. Included amongst these were the famous Chinese revolutionary Sun Yat-sen and Indian revolutionary Rash Bihari Bose, who fled India and exiled to Japan to escape the colonialist British government. On the request of Sun Yat-sen, Toyama took Bose in and helped him shelter in Japan. It was actually through the introduction by Bose that Pratap and Toyama met. Toyama also tried to reach out to help Afghanistan against the British. His grandson, Okisuke Toyama, in addition to being the president of Association for Development of Agricultural Resources, is a long-time observer of Japanese politics and advises on a nationalist disposition Rash Bihari Bose ( ) Rash Bihari Bose was a revolutionary leader battling against the British in India and an organizer of the Indian National Army (INA). He was involved in revolutionary activities early in his life and his involvement in these activities aroused the suspicion of the British government until ultimately he was jailed. He broke from prison and subsequently appeared in Kabul dressed in traditional Afghan clothes. In Kabul an 51 Afghan Ambassador s letter to the Afghan Ministry of Foreign Affairs dated 20 Dalwe 1350 (February 1971) and Pratap s letter to the Afghan Ambassador in Japan dated 28 December

40 Haron Amin Afghan entrepreneur named Mr. Sobhan who was married to a German, provided Bose with a haven. He later moved to Japan where he was taken in by Mitsuru Toyama. 52 Facing enormous pressure by the British to expel all exiles from Japan, Japanese authorities issued the order that Bose leave Japan within a week. But following criticism from public organs and the likes of revolutionaries such as Mitsuru Toyama for their indecisive attitude, not to mention the fear that the oppressive British authorities would arrest and execute him, the Japanese authorities eventually decided to protect Bose s life. The Genyosha Society helped Rash Bihari Bose to escape and shelter himself in Nakamuraya Bakery where he hid for four and a half months. Whilst there, he met and married Toshiko, the daughter of the couple owning the bakery. Subsequently, the British government's search for Rash Bihari Bose came to an end by the abolition of the Anglo-Japanese Alliance Treaty. Bose was instrumental in persuading the Japanese authorities to stand by the Indian nationalists and ultimately to support actively the Indian freedom struggle abroad. He commanded Indian troops in Burma under the lead of the Japanese Imperial Army. Bose convened a conference in Tokyo on March 28-30, 1942, which led to the establishment of the Indian Independence League. He convened the second conference of the League at Bangkok on June 22, It was at this conference that a resolution was adopted to invite Subhas Chandra Bose to join the League and take command as its president. On the organizational foundation work of Rash Bihari Bose, Subhas Chandra Bose declared the formation of the Indian National Army in Before his death the Japanese Government honored Rash Bihari Bose with the Second Order of the Merit of the Rising Sun Subhas Chandra Netaji Bose ( ) Subhas Chandra Bose, who was of no relation to Rash Bihari Bose, was popularly known as Netaji. Despite being a fine scholar he had no 52 Ikawa, Satoshi & Kobayashi, Hiroshi. Hito Arite Toyama Mitsuru to Genyosha, (2003) pp

41 Afghan-Japan Relations: Lands Under The Rising Sun intention of serving the British. Instead he wanted to participate in the Nationalist Movement and liberate his Motherland. Mahendra Pratap was one of Netaji s heroes. Bose helped set up a provisional government-in-exile for India established in Kabul soon after the beginning of the First World War. At the start of World War II, Bose spent time in Germany where he succeeded in enlisting German support to organize anti-british movements. There he formed the Provisional Independent Government for India, and his ideas spread through regular broadcasts from Berlin. Backed by the governments of both Germany and Japan, Bose embarked upon a submarine journey to Japan which helped him establish the Indian National Army in Myanmar under the Japanese. Subhas Chandra Bose died on August 19, 1945, when his plane crashed at Matsuyama Airport in Formosa or present-day Taiwan four days after WWII ended while on his way back to Japan from Myanmar The Pan-Asiatic Congress On August 1, 1926 fifty-one delegates from Japan, China, India, Afghanistan, the Philippines and Korea participated in a three-day conference called The Pan-Asiatic Congress which convened at the Nagasaki Y.M.C.A. Hall. At the Congress, Professor Lin of Peking University elaborated on its origin: Our two immediate purposes are to spread the intellectual and spiritual fruits of our Oriental Civilisation and to develop the material resources of Asia. To do this we desire to thwart imperialism, in order that there may be free and spontaneous development. 53 However, when the Chinese delegate declared soliciting support for India s independence, the Japanese delegate Mr. Imazato, himself a Member of Parliament who had delivered the opening address pointed out that the Japanese authorities might close the conference if it touched upon subjects tending to injure relations between the Japanese and foreign governments, a resolution to the foregoing effect submitted by Mr. Huang of the Chinese delegation was withdrawn. 54 In his 53 The Japan Chronicle, August 5, U.S. National Archives and Records Administration: Report No. 220 filed by US Embassy in Tokyo dated August 7, 1926, p.2. 23

42 Haron Amin opening address he had remarked that the nine hundred million Asiatic peoples were experiencing one of the most painful of existences. A second Chinese delegate stated that the mission is not to drive the white people out of Asia but to be on terms of equality with them. 55 At the Congress, Pratap represented Afghanistan while Rash Bihari Bose was the chief Indian delegate. He declared that The triumph of the Asiatic nations meant the realization of world peace, and the final object of universal love for which all had been yearning would then be achieved. 56 The Indian delegation submitted a resolution, subsequently adopted, stating that the Congress expressed its appreciation to the Amir of Afghanistan, the Shah of Persia, Kemal Pasha, Dr. Tagore, Gandhi, Mitsuru Toyama and others who had contributed to the Pan-Asiatic movement. At the Congress a Provisional Constitution was submitted whose Article 1 reads as follows: The object of the Federation is to bring permanent peace to the world, based on the principle of equality and justice, eliminating all discrimination, whether social, religious or racial, and thus to assure liberty and happiness to all the races of the world. On the evening of Monday the 2 nd of August, Pratap visited the Osaka Mainichi and stated that all Asiatic peoples look upon Japan as the savior of Asia. 57 However, the Congress did not generate the kind of sensation expected. On the one hand, a substantial amount of time and energy was spent on Sino-Japanese debate on Twenty-One Demands, and on the other, many Japanese politicians did distance themselves from the conference. Yet, the conference did succeed in illuminating the feeling of hostility by Asians against great powers. The fact that the Congress did not evolve highlights the difficulties before it. 55 The Japan Chronicle, August 5, 1926 Pan-Asiatic Congress: The White Domination of the World. 56 The Japan Chronicle, August 3, The Tokyo Nichinichi also called the Mainichi, August 4,

43 3. Formal Diplomatic Relations Afghan-Japan Relations: Lands Under The Rising Sun Although official relations between Afghanistan and Japan were established in 1931, there were several attempts by Afghan authorities to establish solid contact with the Meiji Administration long before then. On February 20, 1919, Amir Habibullah was assassinated on a hunting trip which led to the accession of his third son King Amanullah to the throne. Amanullah s ten-year reign saw much dramatic change in foreign and domestic politics starting with the declaration of sovereignty over Afghan foreign affairs in 1919 following the month-long Third Anglo-Afghan War with Britain. One of the King s important foreign policy strategy was to establish new diplomatic relations with external powers. Japan was one of the first countries to whom the newly modern Afghanistan constrained by the Gandumak Treaty turned for support and cooperation. Unfortunately though, a message sent by the new government of Afghanistan was captured by British authorities in India and never reached Japan. The second attempt to send a special mission through Russia and China failed because of lack of communications. Meanwhile, the British bitter over three military defeats by Afghans persuaded the Japanese Government through diplomatic contacts to delay the establishment of relations with Afghanistan, as they discouraged others like the United States of America. 58 Japan and Afghanistan were on very friendly terms and shared many exchanges before 1930, the year in which the first Afghan-Japanese treaty of friendship was concluded. King Habibullah Khan, under a decree, had donated 1000 (Sterling Pounds) in early 1914 to the victims of the three earthquakes that occurred in Japan. 59 The earthquakes occurred as follows: January 12 th - Sakurajima (M 7.1 and 35 dead); March 15 th, Akita Senkita (M 7.1, 94 dead and 640 houses destroyed) and March 28 th, Akita Senkita (M 6.1). Japan was very well received in Afghanistan and had established a solid commercial 58 Poullada, Leon B. & Poullada, Leila D.J. The Kingdom of Afghanistan and the United States: (Omaha: Center for Afghan Studies at the University of Nebraska at Omaha and Dageforde Publishing, 1995), pp The Seraj ul-akhbar Weekly, dated 25 June 1914 (3 rd Year, No. 20, p. 2). 25

44 Haron Amin presence. There was an ever increasing demand in Afghanistan for Japanese products such as cloth, chemical products and machinery. 60 In 1922, Hisao Tani, a Japanese military officer in India, was the first Japanese to visit Afghanistan in modern times. This visit to Afghanistan was followed by that of Yasunosuke Tanabe in October 1925, who after returning back to Japan, went on to establish the Japan-Afghanistan Club in In December 1927, when King Amanullah along with Queen Soraya embarked on his European tour, he visited the Embassy of Japan in London in order to make preparations for the conclusion of a basic friendship treaty with Japan. Subsequently, on November 19, 1930, the Afghan-Japanese Treaty of Friendship was signed and exchanged between Marshall Shah Wali Khan, the Afghan Envoy and Mr. Tsuneo Matsudaira, the Japanese Ambassador in London. The Treaty of Friendship signed was drafted in French. Diplomatic missions were exchanged when Sardar Habibullah Tarzi, the first Afghan Minister to Japan, realizing the importance of its evergrowing economic power. 61 Traveling aboard the Hakone Maru from Bombay, he arrived in Kobe and then in Tokyo on October 5, 1933 to build the first ever Afghan legation. On October 19, he presented his credentials signed by King Nadir Shah to the Emperor and the first legation was established in Iikura Azabudai, before moving to Aoba-cho, Shibuya-ku. 62 He remained in this post until March Subsequent Afghan ambassadors to Japan include: Mr. Qasim Reshitiya, formerly Finance Minister; Abdul Majid Khan, formerly Education Minister and Dr. Abdul Hakim Tabibi, formerly Justice Minister. The first Japanese Minister to visit Afghanistan was Mr. Masamoto Kitada in On November 6, 1934, Kitada arrived in Kabul with his 60 Gregorian, Vartan. The Emergence of Modern Afghanistan: Politics of Reforms and Modernization. (Stanford University Press, 1969), p Habibullah was the nephew of Mahmood Tarzi, editor of the Seraj-ul Akhbar Newspaper. 62 The current Embassy site is also in Iikura, Azabu purchased on March 13, Many Japanese involved in the transaction believed that it was meant to be. 26

45 Afghan-Japan Relations: Lands Under The Rising Sun wife being the daughter of former Prime Minister Hamaguchi. Upon his return to Japan, Mr. Kitada joined the Japan-Afghanistan Club. During the 1930s, some twenty or thirty Japanese were living in Afghanistan. Many cultural and educational exchanges took place as well. For example, in 1931, the Afghan government invited Takagaki, a Japanese judo instructor to train Afghan army officers, who stayed for seven years. Then, in 1932, Japan invited six Afghan students to learn Japanese and undertake higher learning. They continued their education throughout WWII and their graduation was done with Japanese clothing, contrary to the norm. They left Japan through Siberia in October of 1943 and arrived in Afghanistan in December of that year. Of these, Abdul Hakim Ziayee later became Chief Justice and Abdullah Yaftali was appointed as the Deputy Prime Minister. As mentioned already, after returning from Afghanistan, Yasunosuke Tanabe founded the Japanese-Afghanistan Club in 1935 which would function as intercessor between the two countries. With the great help of Torikichi Obata and Masaji Inoue, in June 1935, he held an inauguration for the founding of the Japanese-Afghanistan Club. 63 He issued some brief rules of this club and chose approximately ten people to be committee members. Tanabe was appointed the committee chair. The main aims of this club were to improve the friendship between the two nations, publish bulletins several times a year and hold welcome and farewell parties for officials of both nations as well as tea parties for exchange students from Afghanistan to facilitate communication with their Japanese counterparts. From 1935 to 1941, this club was managed with financial contributions from several leading companies. The primary contributors included Mitsubishi Joint-Stock Company, Sumitomo Joint-Stock Company and Mitsui Products. With these contributions, the Japan-Afghanistan Club was managed for seven years. In 1941, its name was changed to The Japan-Afghanistan Association and its scale expanded immensely This club enrolled prominent figures in Japanese politics and included Togo Shigenori, who later was categorized as A Class Criminal at the Yasukuni Shrine. 64 The current Chairman of this association is Mr. Kenshiro Matsunami, a member of the Lower House of the Diet and a former teacher at Kabul University whose son was born in Afghanistan. 27

46 Haron Amin According to unpublished notes of Mr. Mitsuo Ozaki, a Japanese government official working in Afghanistan from 1935 to 1938, Japan was using Afghanistan as a base to spy on the former Soviet Union, particularly the latter s combat strength in central Asia, which irritated Afghan authorities. 65 During the Second World War, despite declaration of neutrality on August 17, 1940 by Afghanistan, the British and Russian governments demanded through diplomatic notes issued on October 9 and 11, 1941 that Afghan authorities hand all Axis (Japanese, German and Italian) diplomats as well as non-diplomatic members of missions over to the Allied Forces. The German invasion of the Soviet Union in June of 1941 and vacillation by the Iranian Government not to evacuate Axis diplomats led to a joint Russo-British invasion of Iran on 25 August The Afghan Prime Minister, Mohammad Hashim, even with the invasion of Iran fresh in the news, considered the Russo-British ultimatum an insult to traditional Afghan hospitality and neutrality, an affront to the Muslim custom of sanctuary, and a slap at the growing national integrity of a small nation. Many Afghans wanted to reject the note, and, if necessary, fight. 66 At the end, a Loya Jirga or a traditional Grand Assembly of Afghans was convened on November 5-6, 1941, which accepted the repatriation of non-diplomatic members only to be escorted by an Afghan Foreign Ministry delegation through British India to a neutral country under a free passage. 67 Contrary to British and Russian expectation, all Axis diplomats were permitted to stay Bilateral Developments In 1951, a Japanese anthropologist named Shinobu Iwamura traveled to Afghanistan and visited some villages near Herat in northwestern Afghanistan known and established that the Mongolian language was 65 Itar-Tass: 29 November Dupree: Adamec, Ludwig W. Historical Dictionary of Afghanistan Second Edition. (London: The Scarecrow Press, Inc., 1997), p Adamec, Ludwig W. Historical Dictionary of Afghanistan Second Edition. (London: The Scarecrow Press, Inc., 1997), pp

47 Afghan-Japan Relations: Lands Under The Rising Sun spoken among the locals of a few villages called Moghul Qeshlaq 69 and published the finding in the Asahi Shimbun which later was published as a book called Afghanistan Kikou. 70 Later, as part of the Karakorum & Hindukush Gakujyutu Tankentai meaning Karakorum and Hindukush Arts and Sciences Expeditionary Party, Mr. Iwamura traveled to Afghanistan from May to October 1955 visiting Kabul, Kandahar, Nuristan and Hazarajat as well as some northern provinces. The Expedition included Professor Ahmad Ali Motamedi from Kabul University and Mr. Tadashi Yamazaki who died in April At the time some 800 families from Mongolian descent were believed to live in Ghor Province s Zarni District who could understand Mongolian but could not speak it. 71 Mr. Iwamura later became a well-known expert on Mongolian Empire and history of the Silk Road saw the first Afghan-Japanese marriage between Abdul Shokur Shaker and Ms. Mitsuko Yagi. 72 In 1959, the Afghan Crown Prince Sardar Mohammed Daoud visited Japan. In 1960, a Japanese mountaineering group climbed Nawshākh, the highest mountain in Afghanistan. In 1962, the first Afghan Commerce Delegation came to Japan. To celebrate the 1964 Olympics held in Tokyo, Afghanistan issued commemorative stamps. In 1964, director of Kabul Museum, Mr. Ali Ahmad Motamedi, member of the Karakorum & Hindukush Expedition married Ms. Haruko Tsuchiya. She later produced a book on Kabul Museum in Japanese. From April 9-15, 1969, Their Majesties King Zahir Shah and Queen Homaira, with an entourage of senior cabinet members, paid an official one-week State visit to Japan. The King and Queen were received at Haneda Airport by The Majesties Emperor Hirohito and Empress Nagako as well as high ranking officials of the Japanese government. Then, Prime Minister Eisaku Sato received the King and they exchanged views on the international situation at that time and the possibilities of 69 Qeshlaq translates as village. Derived from Turkish, it actually means warm places where one resides during the winter. 70 Iwamura S. and Schurmann, H. Notes on Mongolian Groups in Afghanistan by the Institute of Research in Humanities at Kyoto University: 1954., pp Adamec, Ludwig W. Historical and Political Gazetteer of Afghanistan: Vol. 3. (Austria: Akademische Druck- u. Verlagsantalt, Vol. 3., 1975), p Shaker was a businessman involved in ceramics 29

48 Haron Amin further development of economic and cultural relations between the two countries. The King and Queen visited sites of economic interest and cultural and historic places in and around the cities of Tokyo, Osaka, Nara and Kyoto. During two separate audiences with His Majesty, the Father of the Nation in December 2003 and April 2005, the author was acutely impressed by the mental acuity of His Majesty s memories as H.M. recalled over a period of one hour details from their trip to Japan. 73 In 1970, Crown Prince Ahmad Shah and Crown Princess Belqis came to Japan to participate at the Osaka Expo. The 1969 visit by the Afghan King and Queen was reciprocated in June 1971 by a State visit to Afghanistan by Their Imperial Highnesses Crown Prince and Princess, now Their Majesties Emperor Akihito and Empress Michiko. The Japanese Imperial couple arrived in Kabul on 5 th June 1971 for a six-day state visit. 74 Afghan Prime Minister Noor Ahmad Etemadi called on them soon afterwards. Accompanied by Crown Prince Ahmad Shah and his sister Crown Princess Belqis, the state-trip included attending dinner receptions hosted by the Afghan Royal Family in the Gulkhana Palace as well as visits to Bamiyan and Ai-Khanum, a vast Hellenic period metropolis on the banks of the Oxus River founded in 327 B.C. 75 After their return to Japan, Her Majesty Crown Princess Michiko composed the following poem: There at Bamian Under a moon faintly red The great stone Buddhas, 73 Under the new Constitution (2004) His Majesty serves as The Father of the Nation. 74 During this trip, the Chief of Protocol Mr. Sa adullah Ghausy accompanied Their Imperial Highnesses and later was appointed Charge d Affaires to Japan in Mr. Abdullah Yaftali, first Deputy Premier and one of the six initial Afghan students in Japan in 1930 s served as the interpreter during this trip. 30

49 Their sacred faces shattered, Are still awesomely standing. 76 Afghan-Japan Relations: Lands Under The Rising Sun In March 2001, saddened by the destruction of the Buddha statues, Her Majesty Empress Michiko wrote another poem. All unconsciously Have I too not fired a shot? - With Spring well along On the plains of Bamian The stone Buddhas are no more. 77 During the occasion of presenting the Letters of Credence to His Majesty the Emperor of Japan on April 30, 2004 as well as a Tea Ceremony with Their Majesties, the Emperor and Empress of Japan on May 24, 2004, I was deeply moved by Their Majesties vivid memories of Afghanistan, remembering names of Afghan Royal Family members as well as up-to-date information on Afghanistan. Empress Michiko even went as far as revealing a quasi-hidden fact by saying: Last year, when President Karzai was coming to Japan, my husband was in hospital. He told the doctor to make sure that he would be out of the hospital by the time President Karzai would arrive since he wanted to see him at the Imperial Palace. In early 1973, the mayor of the City of Jalalabad, Mr. Habibullah Amin- Arsala came to Japan as guest of Tokyo Mayor and visited numerous gardens and parks. During this trip he laid a wreath on the tomb of Admiral Heihachiro Togo. He was the son of Aminullah Khan, who in 1907 had accompanied General Ayub to Japan. The garden of the Ministry of Foreign Affairs in Kabul was designed based on his observations in Japan. However, the new era of cooperation and exchange on political, economic and cultural matters were short-lived as the former Soviet Union invaded Afghanistan (1979). Japan condemned the invasion and subsequently suspended all its projects throughout Afghanistan. It also

50 Haron Amin withdrew its nationals from Afghanistan. Although Afghanistan maintained an Embassy in Tokyo, Japan did not receive any ambassadors. Meanwhile, Japan actively supported the resistance movement by the Afghan Mujahedeen and generously assisted the Afghan refugees in Iran and Pakistan, both directly and indirectly through Japanese and international governmental as well as nongovernmental organizations, including the United Nations. After the Communist regime (1992), Japan played a mediatory role Post 9.11 Relations For the first time since World War II, Japan took on a mission by dispatching Maritime Self-Defense Force (JMSDF) vessels to the Indian Ocean for refueling operations of the Coalition Forces to support international troops in Afghanistan in the fight on terror under the Basic Plan of Anti-Terrorism Special Measures Law. Also known as The Pacific Fleet, the mission began on November 1, 2001 in order to topple the Taliban regime. On the occasion of the Taliban defeat and liberation of Afghanistan, His Majesty the Emperor composed this poem: Afghanistan becomes a War Theater In Kabul City With the war over at last, From the people seen Walking up and down the streets A great joy is welling up. 78 Soon after the Bonn Accord and the announcement of the Interim Administration on December 22, 2001, and with millions of students returning back to school and seeing female teachers on the media, Her Majesty wrote this poem: A Time of Burgeoning There in Kabul, too,

51 Where the trees are very few, Buds must be bursting- With all of those young women Lifting their blue burkha veils. 79 Afghan-Japan Relations: Lands Under The Rising Sun Mrs. Sadako Ogata, appointed as Prime Minister Junichiro Koizumi s Special Representative to Afghanistan visited Afghanistan in January On January 21-22, 2002, Japan convened the International Conference on Reconstruction Assistance to Afghanistan, which was attended by Chairman Hamid Karzai heading a big cabinet delegation. Known as the Tokyo Conference, it recognized the vital importance of security and counter-narcotics issues to the success of reconstruction, and placed special emphasis on providing systematic follow-up and sufficient assistance to ensure steady and irreversible progress. The cumulative amount of pledges for Afghanistan was more than 4.5 billion US Dollars. At the Diet, the Nihon Afghan Giin Renmei or Japan-Afghan Parliamentary League was expanded to support Afghanistan s reconstruction. Japan reopened its Embassy in Kabul in February of 2002 appointing Kinichi Komano as the Charge d Affaires and later as first Ambassador after the Soviet Invasion. Foreign Minister Kawaguchi visited sites where rehabilitation assistance for Afghanistan was being carried out in May 2002 and conveyed Japan's intention to assist the Government and people of Afghanistan. She met with then Chairman Hamid Karzai, Foreign Minister Abdullah and Father of the Nation. Madame Ogata went to Kabul in June 2002 during the Emergency Loya Jirga. Her visit was followed by Foreign Minister Abdullah s trip to Japan in October Subsequently, the Afghan Embassy in Tokyo was reopened in Tokyo in November The Tokyo Conference on Consolidation of Peace in Afghanistan was launched in order to promote the Disarmament, Demobilization and Reintegration process for Afghan combatants, which was attended by President Hamid Karzai who delivered a keynote speech. In July 2003, Madame Ogata went to Afghanistan to review the situation in the country to assess Japanese assistance and to see implementation of the Ogata Initiative. Then in November 2003, Mr. Kazunori Tanaka, Parliamentary Secretary for

52 Haron Amin Foreign Affairs traveled to Afghanistan and delivered a personal letter from Prime Minister Junichiro Koizumi addressed to Mr. Hamid Karzai, President of the Transitional Administration of Afghanistan. During his stay in that country, Mr. Tanaka exchanged views with dignitaries of the Transitional Administration about reconstruction assistance and the country's political process. In March 2004, Madame Ogata attended an International Conference on Afghan Reconstruction. During the UN General Assembly, Prime Minister Koizumi and President Karzai met in September On April 5, 2005, Minister for Foreign Affairs, Nobutaka Machimura, paid an official trip to Kabul and met with President Hamid Karzai and had a working lunch with Minister of Foreign Affairs, Dr. Abdullah, as well as some other Cabinet Ministers. This trip coincided with the second day of the Afghan Development Conference. During the meeting, President Karzai expressed his gratitude for Japan s assistance, noting the disarmament, demobilization and reintegration (DDR) process of ex-combatants and the fueling activities by Self-Defense Force (SDF) vessels in the Indian Ocean. In May 2005, Foreign Minister Abdullah visited Japan and had meetings with Prime Minister Koizumi and Foreign Minister Machimura and had lunch with members of the Japan-Afghan Parliamentary League. Mrs. Habiba Sarabi, governor of Bamiyan visited Japan from August 22-29, 2005, followed by a visit from Afghan Information and Culture Minister Makhdoom Raheen and Prince Mirwais, Advisor to the Ministry. On January 18-20, 2006, Finance Minister Anwar-ul Haq Ahadi and Deputy Foreign Minister Mahmoud Saikal visited Japan and had fruitful discussions with Finance Minister Tanigaki, Foreign Minister Taro Aso and Senior Vice Minister Katsutoshi Kaneda. Senior Vice Minister Kaneda headed the Japanese delegation to the London Conference where the Afghanistan Compact was signed between Afghanistan and the international community accompanied by Ambassador Ryuichi Tanabe who was in charge of aid coordination for Afghanistan. After more than two years of efforts, but only after 73 years of attempts by numerous ambassadors aimed at buying a permanent Chancery and Residence, finally the contract for a dignified property at Iikura, Azabudai was concluded on March 13, Its redevelopment will take some time and it will be ready for inhabitation in the summer of 2007, which will coincide with 100 th anniversary of Prince Ayub s visit 34

53 Afghan-Japan Relations: Lands Under The Rising Sun to Japan. 80 On May 24, 2006, the first session of Development Policy Dialogue (DPD) between Japan and Afghanistan took place at the Ministry of Foreign Affairs in Kabul. The DPD was a mutual initiative drawing parallel lessons from Japanese development assistance in the Far East and elsewhere in order to determine development priorities in Afghanistan. 81 Foreign Minister Dr. Rangeen Dadfar Spanta participated as a Guest at the Second Foreign Ministers Meeting of the Central Asia plus Japan Dialogue on June 5, 2006 also attended by the Foreign Ministers of Japan, the Kyrgyz Republic, the Republic of Tajikistan and the Republic of Uzbekistan as well as the Special Envoy of the Republic of Kazakhstan. 82 The aim of this Dialogue is democratization of the societies, the promotion of market economy, the improvement of the people s standard of living, the eradication of terrorism and poverty and the protection of human rights and the environment. During his trip, Dr. Spanta had fruitful discussions with Prime Minister Junichiro Koizumi, Foreign Minister Taro Aso and Afghan-Japan Parliamentary League. What is significant about Central Asia plus Japan Dialogue is that in his book Utsukushii kuni he (translated as Towards a Beautiful Country) Prime Minister Shinzo Abe advocates the establishment of a strategic diplomacy with the Central Asian Countries. 83 From June 11-18, 2006, the Japanese House of Councillors invited the first group from the Afghan Parliament headed by Mr. Sayed Hamid Gilani, First Deputy President of the Meshrano Jirga (Upper House). The delegation was on a study visit to learn the importance of decisionmaking process through parliaments, separation of power between legislature and government, significance of bicameral system, electoral 80 On October 11, 2006, a procurement team was dispatched by the Afghan Reconstruction and Development Services (ARDS) to Tokyo to launch the redevelopment of the new embassy in Iikura. The project was approved by the World Bank and the funds for it came from the international donor community. 81 This initiative was the result of mutual efforts by Ambassadors Riyuchi Tanabe and the author. 82 Efforts are underway to make Afghanistan a full member of this Dialogue. 83 Shinzo Abe became Prime Minister on September 26,

54 Haron Amin system (including party politics), legislative process (including budgetary debates), oversight of administration including promotion of transparency and accountability and fighting corruption, parliamentary affairs such as research, legislation, administration and operation) as well as gender and human rights in parliamentary procedures. Ambassador Riyuchi Tanabe headed the Japanese delegation at the Conference in Moscow from June 27-29, 2006 and Japan pledged fivemillion Dollars to the Counter-Nartcotics Trust Fund (CNTF) to provide funding for alternative livelihood initiatives in Afghanistan. President Hamid Karzai headed an Afghan delegation to attend the Tokyo Conference II: Consolidation of Peace in Afghanistan as well as a Working Official visit to Japan from July 4-7, The Conference was inaugurated by H.E. Mr. Taro Aso, Minister for Foreign Affairs of Japan with the opening statement given by President Karzai and attended by representatives from 53 states and 15 international organizations. Japan pledged 60 million Dollars as part of its total contribution announced in London towards comprehensive rural development, improvement of security as well as counter-narcotics initiatives within the greater goal of development throughout Afghanistan. The conference highlighted the successful completion of the Disarmament, Demobilization and Reintegration process known as the DDR, which successfully disarmed over 60,000 former combatants and invigorated the Disbandment of Illegal Armed Groups (DIAG). The President also had an audience with His Majesty the Emperor of Japan and met with Prime Minister Junichiro Koizumi, Mr. Kanzaki, Head of Komei-Party, members of the Committee on Prevention of International Terrorism and Support at the House of Representatives, Mrs. Chikage Oogi, Speaker of the House of Councillors, Mr. Hata, Super Adviser of the Democratic Party, as well as the Afghan-Japan Parliamentary Friendship League. On July 6 th, he left aboard shinkansen or bullet train for the beautiful city of Kyoto, and visited Kiyomizudera Temple as well as Sento Gosho, the Imperial Household which Their Majesties the Emperor and Empress of Japan still reside in when visiting Kyoto. In the evening, the Governor of Kyoto welcomed the President and honored him with a Haori, and in return the President gave his Chapan as a gift. Later, the Governor hosted a Tea Ceremony followed by dinner complete with a Koto performance for the President and his delegation. 36

55 Afghan-Japan Relations: Lands Under The Rising Sun On November 20, 2006, Mr. Masakazu Sekiguchi, Japan's Vice- Minister for Foreign Affairs met with President Hamid Karzai at the Presidential Palace in Kabul. Bilateral relations, regional security, the fight against terrorism, the Jirgas on both sides of the Durrand Line, and the Second Regional Economic Cooperation Conference (RECC) recently held in New Delhi were among the topics discussed. The Vice- Minister conveyed a message from Japan s newly elected Prime Minister, Shinzo Abe, to President Karzai saying, "Though the leadership in Japan has changed, there will be no change in the policy of the government of Japan towards Afghanistan." Later, both the President and Vice-Minister laid a foundation stone for the construction of a terminal at the Kabul International Airport, which Japan is funding at a cost of roughly $35 million. An eight member Afghan parliamentary delegation headed by Professor Sibghatullah Mojadedi, President of the Upper House known as the Meshrano Jirga, visited Tokyo on December 4-5, 2006 to attend the PGA 28 th Annual Parliamentary Forum on Human Security as part of an initiative by the Parliamentarians for Global Action. The delegation also included Mr. Aref Noorzai, Deputy President of the Lower House known as the Welasi Jirga Japan s Role in the Reconstruction of Post-Conflict Afghanistan Since 2001, Japan has committed over 1.1 billion US Dollars over seven years and has effectively delivered more than 1.1 billion so far for the reconstruction and development of Afghanistan. This includes the recent pledge by Japan at the London Conference January 31 and February 1, Japan announced the Ogata Initiative under Japan's Regional Comprehensive Development Assistance to Afghanistan within the context of "human security." 84 The initiative concentrates on reconstruction at the provincial community level and made its start by assisting the reintegration of returnees and Internally Displaced Persons (IDP). Some of the underlying concepts include smooth transition from humanitarian assistance to recovery and reconstruction assistance and 84 The evolution of the Ogata Initiative had its roots in Madame Ogata s June 2002 trip and her discussions with the ordinary people. 37

56 Haron Amin later a comprehensive development plan for priority regions, namely the Provinces of Kandahar, Jalalabad, Mazar-i-Sharif and Bamiyan Current Status and Future Strategy of Japanese Assistance to Afghanistan 1. Phase One (August, 2002) Focus on refugee reintegration, IDPS - UNHCR (shelter materials, potable water, crop production) - UNICEF (distribution of educational items for children and teachers, provision of temporary educational facilities, etc.) - ICRC (distribution of food to inaccessible areas) 2. Phase Two (November, 2002) Expand to target local communities as well as refugees and IDPS Income generation, medical care, sanitation and capacity building for education, labor-intensive projects (rehabilitation of basic infrastructure); and mine actions Specific Kandahar assistance - Reconstruction of principal roads between Kabul and Kandahar / Kandahar and Spin Boldak - Various assistance projects inside and around Kandahar city. (Positive results have led to the same programs being implemented in Mazari-sharif) 3. Phase Three Support to ex-combatants for re-integration into society through vocational training, job placement, farming, small business, de-mining ANBP (Afghanistan New Beginnings Program) establishment as focal point for DDR program July, completion of disarmament phase of the DDR Programme for Afghanistan Military Forces (over 60,000 soldiers), assistance to disarmed and demobilized soldiers for their reintegration will continue until June

57 Afghan-Japan Relations: Lands Under The Rising Sun 4. Phase Four (March, 2004) Projects to support Kapisa Province, in addition to three previous areas UNHCR will engage in improving the supply of water, irrigation, road construction (income generation) and vocational training in the areas where returnees repatriate; training for teachers, rural-driven educational infrastructure improvement, improvement of potable water and public hygiene in schools and communities and rehabilitation of young soldiers; Clearing of land mines in designated areas Aid collaboration with UNHCR, UNICEF, WFP under coordination of UNAMA (United Nations Assistance Mission to Afghanistan) Japan s role: Despite some humanitarian assistance, most contributions went towards reconstruction assistance in the following areas: Political process and governance - media support, election support, administration, capacity building, etc. Security improvements - de-mining, police reconstruction, DDR and DIAG, counter-narcotics, etc. Reconstruction - roads, health and medical, infrastructure, education, agriculture and rural development, etc Breakdown of Japanese Assistance Following are Japan s commitments in these areas (all US $): (1) $152 million for the political process and governance ($95 million for budget assistance for the Afghan Interim and Transitional Administrations, $26 million for media support and $30 million for elections support; (2) $209 million for security improvement ($135 million for DDR and DIAG, $58 million for de-mining, $11.5 million for counter-narcotics and $4.2 million for police reform; (3) $655 million for reconstruction ($205 million for primary and other road, $46 million for health and medical care, $29 million for education, $88 million for refugees and resettlement of IDPs, $30 million for infrastructure excluding roads, $82 39

58 Haron Amin million for agriculture and rural development, $49 million for grass roots and human security grant assistance and $127 million for other including technical assistance. An additional $161million were spent on humanitarian assistance immediately after September Military Assistance The Japan Maritime Self-Defense Force supports the international peace keeping forces in Afghanistan with ships in the Indian Ocean by refueling coalition planes and jets Future Commitments In his speech entitled Japan and NATO: Toward Future Collaboration, at the NAC on January 12, 2007, Prime Minister Shinzo Abe said: Concerning Afghanistan, I for one recognize the imminent challenges of the task at hand, and I am aware of the obstacles that must be overcome. Still, I will continue to convey to my fellow Japanese citizens a very simple message: Japan is investing in the future of Afghanistan because its stability is vital to Japan and the world. In the Indian Ocean, Japanese Maritime Self-Defense Force vessels have been providing fuel to countries participating in Operation Enduring Freedom, including nine NATO member states. Japan has donated 1.1 billion US dollars for reconstruction assistance. We have provided Kaboul, Kandahar and Bamian, to name a few, with hundreds of classrooms. We do this because we know that every school we rebuild is another ray of hope for the children of Afghanistan. The International Security Assistance Force and Japan have combined resources to reintegrate into civilian life 60,000 former Afghan soldiers. Every father who returns home as a result is a beacon of hope for Afghan families. Our next task is to dismantle the illegal militias of more than 125,000 fighters. I fully agree with much of what the NATO Riga Summit has declared, and share your opinion that there can be no security in Afghanistan 85 As of January, 2007 (Source: Japanese MoFA) 86 Known as OEF-MIO (Operation Enduring Freedom-Maritime Interdiction Operation) in the Indian Ocean to prevent free movement of terrorists and their related materials such as weapons and ammunition at sea. 40

59 Afghan-Japan Relations: Lands Under The Rising Sun without development. I also share your view on the need to enhance collaboration between NATO and its partners, including Japan. On this basis, I would like to reaffirm Japan's solid commitment to Afghanistan. First, we will implement further assistance equivalent to 300 million US dollars to complete our commitment made at the London Conference. This is to support the Afghan National Development Strategy in areas such as road and airport construction as well as agricultural development. Second, we will enhance assistance in the area of security. Working closely with NATO, we will carry out vigorously the Disbandment of Illegal Armed Groups. We will also put emphasis on capacity building for the Afghan police forces. Third, we will intensify cooperation with NATO's Provincial Reconstruction Teams' humanitarian activities. My government highly commends the important role that PRTs are playing in remote areas of Afghanistan. Japan will further explore deeper synergies between our assistance activities and those led by PRTs in such areas as basic education, as well as medical and health care. For this purpose, Japan will actively take part in the Contact Group on Afghanistan, whose establishment was proposed at the Riga summit. Fourth, we will play a greater role in the fight against narcotics and terrorism by reinforcing the border control capabilities of the Afghan government, in collaboration with Germany, the U.S. and the EU. 87 Later in the month, the same sentiments were echoed by Foreign Minister Taro Aso during a policy speech before the 166 th Session of the Diet on January 26, 2007: In Afghanistan, together with efforts to improve order and stability, progress needs to be made in social and economic reconstruction and development assistance. For the success of these undertakings, it is essential that all illegal armed groups be dissolved. We ask ourselves: What can Japan do to build peace in Afghanistan? Our actions are being closely watched by our NATO friends. Let me state that Japan is not at all thinking of slackening our commitment to peace in Afghanistan

60 Haron Amin International efforts to eliminate and control the threat presented by terrorism are still ongoing in Afghanistan and the surrounding areas. Japan will continue its cooperation in these efforts including the assistance activities of the Maritime Self-Defense Force based on the Anti-Terrorism Special Measures Law Conclusion In conclusion, cultural, religious, historical, and diplomatic ties between Japan and Afghanistan were established a long time ago. Although not well-known, relations between Japan and Afghanistan have been steadily maintained throughout history based on various cultural and historic parallels. One cannot consider all the parallels to be coincidental, although some events may have occurred simultaneously. The underpinnings which have caused the similarities are rooted in a common heritage, which was the product of the Silk Route, a passage which connected Europe with Asia. There is thus a strong basis for future cultural and diplomatic ties between Japan and Afghanistan that continue to thrive and expand for the benefit of both nations. It is my earnest hope since my research has primarily, and for obvious reasons, focused on compiling historical facts rather than presenting analysis that I have inspired a few to further research Afghan-Japan relations. It is only through appropriate understanding of each other as members of the global community as to solidify correct perception as well as conception that we can turn this world into a global village filled with prosperity, human security and at peace with both itself and nature

61 Table 1 Names of Afghan Officials who visited Japan since 2001 Date Visitor Title Purpose 2002 Jan. President Karzai 20 governmental officials International Conference on the Reconstruction of Afghanistan 2002 Apr. Minister Rasoul Amin Minister of Education Meeting with Minister 2002 Jul. Minister Makhdoom Raheen Minister of Information and Culture Symposium Culture of 2002 Oct. Minister Abdullah Abdullah 2003 Feb. President Karzai Minister Abdullah and some governmental officials Minister of Foreign Affairs 2003 Aug. Mr. Shinwari Chief Justice of Supreme Court 2004 Feb. Mr. Wardak Minister of Disabled, Martyrs and Social Affairs 2004 Mar. 3-6 Minister Mohammad Yunus Qanoni Mr. Abdul Gafoor Ghaznawi 2004 Mar Dr. Ashraf Ghani Mr. Adib Farhadi Minister of Education of Afghanistan Executive Director of the Academic Council of Education Minister of Finance Director of Economics, MOFA Afghanistan Japan extended a new assistance package of more than a total of about $136 million for peace & reconstruction during Minister Abdullah s visit The Tokyo Conference on Consolidation of Peace (DDR) in Afghanistan Change of Order from Guns to Plows Invited by Yamatogishi Seisakujo, a company dealing with artificial limbs Meeting with Minister of Education, Chief Cabinet Secretary Fukuda, Madame Ogata, Presidents of some universities Meeting with Ministers of Finance Tanigaki & Foreign Affairs Kawaguchi, Madame Ogata

62 2004 Aug Dr. Sharif Fayez Minister of Higher Education Meeting with Minister of MEXT. JICA, Signing Ceremony for Contract Mr. Nazif Director of Foreign Relations Department Dr. Popal President of Kabul University Dr. Rawosh President of University of Education 2005 Jan Minister Pashtun Minister of Urban Development World Conference on Disaster Reduction, Kobe, 2005 Mar. 1-3 Former Minister Stanekzai Dr. Ishaq Nadiri Former Minister for Communication of Afghanistan Professor, New York University Hyogo Panelist of JIIA symposium Post-election Afghanistan and Peacebuilding Support 2005 Mar General. Ustad Mohammad Atta Governor of Balkh Province Mr. Mohammad Akbar Akramzadeh Head, Department of Economics, Balkh Province 2005 Apr. 10 Commanders who laid down their weapons to join DDR 2005 May Minister Abdullah Minister of Foreign Affairs Dr. Ishaq Nadiri Mr. Mohammad Acting Director-General, Farooq Baraki Economic Affairs Department, MOFA Meeting with Deputy Minsiter Aisawa, Ambassador Komano Invited by MOFA to see how Japan recovered from war Meeting with Prime Minister Koizumi, Foreign Minister Machimura, JICA, Parliament League, Signing Ceremony on Technical Cooperation Agreement, subsequently, Grant Aid to Afghanistan for the "Project for Construction of the Terminal of Kabul International Airport" Mr. Abdul Samay Walizada Deputy of First Political Department of MOFA 2005 Aug Ms. Habiba Sarabi Governor of Bamiyan Attend The Shirakawa-go 10 th

63 2005 Oct. 31-Nov. 3 Minister Makhdoom Raheen Mr. Mirwais Mr. Akbari Minister of Information and Culture Advisor to Ministry of Information and Culture Vice Governor of Bamiyan Anniversary International Forum on World, Meeting with Madame Ogata Attend the Press Conference on Bamiyan Afghanistan Laser Project 2005 Dec. 14 Mr. Khalid Governor of Kandahar Invited by MOFA on how to expedite development and improve security in Qandahar 2006 Jan Minister Ahadi Minister of Finance Meeting with Ministers Tanigaki & Aso, Deputy Foreign Minister Kaneda, and Madame Ogata Mr. Mahmoud Saikal Deputy Minister of Foreign Affairs 2006 June 5 Dr. Rangeen Dadfar Spanta 2006 June Mr. Sayed Hamid Gilani 2006 Jul. 4-7 Mr. Hamid Karzai other high-ranking officials of the Afghan government 2006 Dec. 4-5 Professor Sibghatullah Mojadedi Mr. Aref Noorzai Foreign Minister First Deputy President of the Meshrano Jirga (Upper House) President of Afghanistan President of the Upper House Deputy President of the Lower House The Second "Central Asia plus Japan" Intellectual Dialogue Attend the Second Foreign Ministers Meeting Study visit invited by the Japanese House of Councillors Attend the Tokyo Conference II: Consolidation of Peace in Afghanistan" Attend the PGA 28 th Annual Parliamentary Forum on Human Security

64 2007 Jan Dr. Ashraf Ghani Chancellor of Kabul University Deliver a lecture organized by JBIC 2007 Jan. 28-Feb. 3 General Mohammad Dawood 2007 Feb Mr. Masoom Stanekzai 2007 Mar Mr. Sayed Ishaq Gailani and Mr. Sibghatullah Zaki Deputy Minister of Interior Advisor to President Hamid Karzai Members of the Wolesi Jirga (Lower House) Attend the Twelfth Asia-Pacific Operational Drug Enforcement Conference Invited by MOFA to access the implementation of DIAG Program in Afghanistan Invited by MOFA to discuss bilateral issues and to have a study visit

65 Table 2 Names of Japanese Officials who visited Afghanistan since Dec. Mr. Uetake, Senior Vice-Minister of Foreign Affairs 2002 Jan. Mrs. Sadako Ogata, Prime Minister s Special Representative for Assistance to Afghanistan 2002 Apr. Mr. Matsunami, Parliamentary Secretary for Foreign Affairs 2002 May Mrs. Yoriko Kawaguchi, Minister of Foreign Affairs 2002 May Mr. Fumio Kishida, Senior Vice-Minister, Ministry of Education, Culture, Sports, Science and Technology 2002 June Mrs. Sadako Ogata, Prime Minister s Special Representative for Assistance to Afghanistan 2002 Aug. Mr. Toshimitsu Motegi, Director-General, Foreign Relations of Liberal Democratic Party 2002 Aug. Mr. Kozo Watanabe Mr. Matsunami, Parliamentary Secretary 2002 Sep. Mr. Sugiura, Vice-Minister for Foreign Affairs 2002 Dec. Mr. Shindo, Parliamentary Secretary of Foreign Affairs 2003 Jul. Mrs. Sadako Ogata, Prime Minister s Special Representative for Assistance to Afghanistan 2003 Nov. Mr. Kazunori Tanaka, Parliamentary Secretary of Foreign Affairs 2004 Jul. Mr. Aizawa, Vice-Minister of Foreign Affairs 2004 Dec. Mrs. Sadako Ogata, Prime Minister s Special Representative for Assistance to Afghanistan 2005 Apr. Mr. Nobutaka Machimura, Minister of Foreign Affairs 2006 Nov. Mr. Masakazu Sekiguchi, Vice-Minister of Foreign Affairs, attended the Second Regional Economic Conference on Afghanistan (India) and visited Afghanistan.

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67 Table 3 Names, Dates and Posts of Afghan Diplomats in Japan Dates of Presentation of Credentials Post Name Oct. 19, 1933 Ambassador Mr. Habibullah Khan Tarzi May, 1939 Carge d'affaires Mr. Abdul Rauf Khan Jul. 12, 1939 Ambassador Mr. Zul Facar Khan The Afghan Embassy was closed in August 1945 (Embassy began normal functions on May 23, 1956) May 31, 1956 Ambassador Dr. Abdul Majid Khan Jul. 03, 1963 Charge d'affaires Mr. Eid M. Mohabbat Mar. 17, 1965 Ambassador Mr. Abdul Rahim Apr. 13, 1967 Charge d'affaires Mr. Abdul Aziz Ali May 22, 1967 Ambassador Dr. Abdul Hakim Tabibi Aug. 28, 1970 Charge d'affaires Mr. Abdul Ahad Mahmoud Sep. 22, 1970 Ambassador Mr. Said Kassim Rishtya Sep. 27, 1973 Charge d'affaires Mr. Mohamad Sarwar Damani Oct. 24, 1974 Ambassador Mr. Ali Ahmad Popal Nov. 11, 1976 Charge d'affaires Dr. Sa adullah Ghausy June 10, 1977 Ambassador Dr. Mohammad Hassan Sharq May 12, 1978 Charge d'affaires Dr. Sa adullah Ghausy Jul. 10, 1978 Ambassador Eng. Abdul Hamid Muhtat Japanese government lowered the status of its relations with the new Communist regime established through a coup d etat in on April 28, 1978 and supported the Afghanistan resistance against the Soviet invasion of December 27, Afterwards, the Afghan Embassy in Tokyo had limited connection Sep. 8, 1987 Charge d'affaires Mr. Shir Rahman Nov. 17, 1987 Charge d'affaires Mr. Mahammad Naim

68 Mar. 21, 190 Charge d'affaires Mr. Mohammad Rahim Robin Aug. 30, 1992 Charge d'affaires Mr.Mohammad Asif Hassani May 27, 1993 Charge d'affaires Mr. Mohamoud Saikal Apr. 7, 1994 Charge d'affaires Mr. Doulat Khan Ahmadzai Apr. 30, 1994 Charge d'affaires Mr. Amir M. Mohabbat Jul. 24, 1996 Charge d'affaires Mr. Rahmatullah Amir The Embassy activities were suspended in November 1997 after the acting Charge d'affaires, Mr. Rahmatullah Amir left Japan. Nov. 27, 2002 Charge d'affaires Mr. Mohammad Noor Akbary Apr. 30, 2004 Ambassador Mr. Haron Amin

69 Table 4 Names, Dates and Posts of Japanese Diplomats in Afghanistan (Established in November, 1934) Dates of Post Name Presentation of Credentials Nov. 6, 1934 Envoy extraordinary and minister Mr. Masamoto KITADA plenipotentiary June 9, 1938 Envoy extraordinary and minister Mr. Warou MORIYA plenipotentiary Sep. 23, 1941 Envoy extraordinary and minister plenipotentiary Mr. Kikuo KOBAYASHI (died in Kabul in 1941) Sep. 21, 1943 Envoy extraordinary and minister plenipotentiary Mr. Motoharu SHICHIDA Legation in Afghanistan was closed in January 27, 1946 Embassy began normal functions on December 23, 1955 Dec. 28, 1955 Ambassador Mr. Kazuichi MIURA Jul. 12, 1958 Ambassador Mr. Kenji NAKAUCHI Feb. 3, 1962 Ambassador Mr. Sadao HIROSE June 4, 1964 Ambassador Mr. Hideki MASAKI June 6, 1968 Ambassador Mr. Sashichirou MATSUI Mar. 31, 1971 Ambassador Mr. Kenji NAKAO Nov. 22, 1973 Ambassador Mr. Junji YAMADA Feb. 16, 1978 Ambassador Mr. Toshikazu MAEDA Embassy activities were suspended in June, 1989 Embassy was reopened in April 27, 2002 Feb. 19, 2002 Charge d'affaires Mr. Kinichi KOMANO Apr. 27, 2002 Ambassador Mr. Kinichi KOMANO Sep. 8, 2004 Ambassador Mr. Norihiro OKUDA Jul. 18, 2006 Ambassador Mr. Junichi KOSUGE

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71 Table 5 Ambassador in Charge of Afghanistan Assistance Based at the Japanese Foreign Ministry Name Date of appointment Ambassador Mutsuyoshi NISHIMURA Aug. 1, 2002 Ambassador Takahiko HORIMURA Apr. 4, 2003 Ambassador Yoshiyuki MOTOMURA Apr. 2, 2004 Ambassador Kinichi KOMANO Sep. 10, 2004 Ambassador Ryuichi TANABE Sep. 16, 2005 Ambassador Yoshiki MINE Dec. 19, 2006 Ambassador Gotaro OGAWA March 31, 2007

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73 BIBLIOGRAPHY About Japan Series: Japanese Culture Tokyo: Foreign Press Center. Adamec, Ludwig W Dictionary of Afghan Wars, Revolutions, and Insurgencies. London: The Scarecrow Press, Inc. Ademec, Ludwig W Historical and Political Gazetteer of Afghanistan: Vol. 3. Austria: Akademische Druck- u. Verlagsantalt. Adamec, Ludwig W Historical Dictionary of Afghanistan- Second Edition. London: The Scarecrow Press, Inc. Allyn, John The 47 Ronin Story. Boston: Tuttle Publishing. Anwari, Dr. Hassan Farhang-e-Fishordeh Sukhan: Vol. 2. Tehran: Maharat Printing. Bajpai, P. & Ram, S Encyclopedia of Afghanistan (Vol. 1 & Vol. 3). New Delhi: Anmol Publications Pvt. Ltd. Benedict, Ruth The Chrysanthemum and the Sword. Rutland and Tokyo: Charles E. Tuttle. De Mente, Boye Lafayette Japan s Cultural Code Words: 233 Key Terms That Explain the Attitudes and Behavior of the Japanese. Boston: Tuttle Publishing. Dupree, Louis Afghanistan. Princeton: Princeton University Press. Ewans, Martin Afghanistan: A Short History of Its People and Politics. New York: Harper Collins Publishers Inc. Geoffroy-Schneiter, Bērēnice Gandahara: The Memory of Afghanistan. New York: Aussouline Publishing. Ghobar, Mir Ghulam Muhammad Afghanistan Dar Maseer-e- Taareekh. Peshawar: Maiwand Publishers. Gregorian, Vartan The Emergence of Modern Afghanistan: Politics of Reforms and Modernization. Stanford University Press, Hopkirk, Peter The Great Game: on Secret Service in High Asia. London: John Murray Publishers, Ltd.

74 Ikawa, Satoshi & Kobayashi, Hiroshi Hito Arite Toyama Mitsuru to Genyosha. Tokyo: Kaichosha. Jansen, Marius B Sakamoto Ryōma and the Meiji Restoration. New York: Columbia University Press. Nawid, Senzil K Religious Response to Social Change in Afghanistan : King Aman-Allah and the Afghan Ulama. Costa Mesa: Mazda Publishers, Inc. Nippon: The Land and Its People Nippon Steel Human Resources Development Co., Ltd. Nitobe, Inazo Bushido: The Soul of Japan. Boston, Tuttle Publishing. Poullada, Leon B. & Poullada, Leila D.J The Kingdom of Afghanistan and the United States: Omaha: Center for Afghan Studies at the University of Nebraska at Omaha and Dageforde Publishing. Reischauer, Edwin O Fourth Edition. Japan: The Story of a Nation. Boston: Tuttle Publishing. Schinasi, May Afghanistan at the Beginning of the Twentieth Century: Nationalism and Journalism in Afghanistan; A Study of Seraj ul-akhbar ( ). Naples: Instituto Universitario Orientale. Maeda, Kosaku and Sekine, Masao 2006 Nihon Afghanistan Kankei Zenshi Tokyo Akashi Shoteni Tanner, Stephen Afghanistan: A Military History from Alexander the Great to the Fall of the Taliban. Cambridge: Da Capo Press. Whitfield, Susan Life along the Silk Road. London: John Murray Publishers.

75 His Majesty King Zahir Shah and Queen Homaira shaking hands with members of the Japanese Cabinet at Haneda Airport upon their arrival on a State Visit on April 9, [Embassy Archives] His Majesty King Zahir Shah and Queen Homaira standing next to the Late Emperor His Majesty Hirohito and Her Royal Highness Princess Nagako at Haneda Airport upon their arrival on a State Visit on April 9, [Embassy Archives]

76

77 Sardar Ayub, Victor of Maiwand who visited Japan in February of [National Archives] Inside the home of Langar Zameer, an Ayyar in old Kabul. [Author]

78

79 Pratap with Mitsuru Toyama, leader of the Genyosha society. [Ikawa, 2003] බᅈƷȪȸȀȸ ޛ Ʊȗȩǿȃȗ ŵ ʟ ᎧŴ ݱ ݎ ŴƀʴƋǓƯÜ ޛ Ʊ බᅈƁ ǑǓ Pratap s letter to the Afghan Ambassador dated December 28, 1971 describing his role as Afghan emissary in Japan. [Embassy Archives] உ ଐ ŴᬟଐǢȕǬȳ ܮ ٻ Ʒȗȩ ǿȃȗ Ʒ إ ԓ ŵ ٻ π૨ ሥ

80

81 The commemorative postage (1964) of the first Afghan stamp issued in 1870 with a lion s head derived from the King s first name, Sher, and surrounded by text in Dari. The uniform worn by members of the Hentig-Niedernmayer Expedition to Afghanistan in 1915.

82

83 Editor-in-Chief of Seraj-ul Akhbar, Mahmood Tarzi who became Foreign Minister in Text of King Habibullah s decree to donate 1000 to the victims of three earthquakes in 1914 in Japan [Seraj-ul-Akhbar, 3rd Year, No. 20, p. 2, dated June 25, 1914]

84

85 King Amanullah (below) and Queen Soraya (above) with King George VI and Queen Mary in London, March [The Illustrated London News Picture Library] It was during this trip that King Amanullah visited the Japanese Embassy in London in order to conclude a basic friendship treaty with Japan. [The Illustrated London News Picture Library]

86

87 Marshall Shah Wali Khan, the Afghan Envoy to London who signed the Afghan-Japanese Treaty of Friendship in Kitada Masamoto, the first Japanese Ambassador to Afghanistan. [Ministry of Foreign Affairs of Japan]

88

89 "Remember Bamiyan" as painted by famous Japanese Artist, Mr. Hirayama.

90

91 A vase made out of Lapis Lazuli. Afghanistan possesses the world s largest Lapis mines and traces of its use date back to the Babylonian (circa 2600 B.C.) and Sumerian (circa 2500 B.C.) civilizations. [Gary W. Bowersox. "The Gem Hunter"]

92

93 Prime Minister Koizumi, President Karzai and Foreign Minister Abdullah (January 2002). [Cabinet Public Relations Office] His Majesty Father of the Nation Zahir Shah with Foreign Minister Yoriko Kawaguchi on May 2, 2002 at the King s Palace. [AP/WWP]

94

95 President Karzai shaking hands with Madame Sadako Ogata on July 10, 2003 at the Presidential Palace in Kabul. Japan s Ambassador to Afghanistan, Mr. Komano, is in the center. [AP/WWP] Madame Ogata at the completion ceremony of the Kandahar Road which Afghan officials named after her. [Kandahar Governor s Office]

96

97 Foreign Minister Abdullah received by Prime Minister Koizumi on May 18, 2005 at his official residence. [Ministry of Foreign Affairs of Japan] Foreign Minister Spanta received by Prime Minister Koizumi on June 5, 2006 at his official residence. [Embassy Archives]

98

99 Japan s Minister of Foreign Affairs, Mr. Taro Aso, with Afghan Foreign Minister Spanta on June 5, [Embassy Archives] Japan s Minister of Foreign Affairs, Mr. Taro Aso, and President Karzai attending the Tokyo Conference II: Consolidation of Peace in Afghanistan, from July 5, [Embassy Archives]

100

101 H.I.H. of Japan, Princess Michiko, attending an Afghan Fashion Show at the Women s Welfare Society in Kabul while visiting Afghanistan in [Embassy Archives] Their Imperial Highness Crown Prince Akihito and Princess Michiko received by Their Royal Highnesses Prince Ahmad Shah and Princess Belqis at a reception at the Ministry of Foreign Affairs during their official visit to Afghanistan in [Embassy Archives]

102

103 President Karzai and His Majesty Emperor Akihito at the Imperial Palace on July 6, [Embassy Archives]

104

105 President Karzai at Kiyomizu Temple in Kyoto on July 6, [Embassy Archives] President Karzai, Ambassador Okuda and Ambassador Amin at the Imperial Palace in Kyoto, July 6, [Embassy Archives]

106

107 Ambassador Amin arriving for the Credentials Ceremony at the Imperial Palace on April 30, [Imperial Household] Ambassador Amin standing with Master of Ceremonies of the Imperial Household, Mr. Kawashima, at the Imperial Palace on April 30, [Imperial Household]

108

109 Ambassador Amin presenting his Letters of Credence to H. M. Emperor Akihito with Minister Takenaka (far right) on April 30, [Imperial Household] President Karzai and Foreign Vice-Minister Masakazu Sekiguchi inaugurating the construction of a new terminal at Kabul International Airport on November 20, [Ministry of Foreign Affairs of Japan]

110

111 Ambassador Amin meeting the Japanese Prime Minister Abe and his wife, Mrs. Akie Abe, in Tokyo, [Office of the Prime Minister] Mr. Yohei KONO (center), Speaker of Lower House of the Diet with Mr. Sebghatullah Mojaddedi (to his left), President of the Upper House and Mr. Aref Noorzai (3rd person to his right), Deputy President of the Lower House and other Parliamentarians invited to his Official Residence on December 5, The Afghan delegation was in Japan to attend the Parliamentarians for Global Action: 28th Annual Parliamentary Forum on Human Security. [Embassy Archives]

112

113 Photos of Japanese Ambassadors to Afghanistan Mr. Warou MORIYA, Envoy Extraordinary and Minister Plenipotentiary Mr. Kikuo KOBAYASHI, Envoy Extraordinary and Minister Plenipotentiary Mr. Motoharu SHICHIDA, Envoy Extraordinary and Minister Plenipotentiary Mr. Kazuichi MIURA, Ambassador Mr. Kenji NAKAUCHI, Ambassador Mr. Sadao HIROSE, Ambassador Mr. Sashichirou MATSUI, Ambassador Mr. Kenji NAKAO, Ambassador Mr. Kinichi KOMANO, Ambassador Photos provided by the Diplomatic Record Office, Ministry of Foreign Affairs of Japan

114

115 Photos of some Afghan Ambassadors to Japan Mr. Habibullah Khan Tarzi, Ambassador Mr. Zul Facar Khan, Ambassador Dr. Abdul Hakim Tabibi, Ambassador Mr. Said Kassim Rishtya, Ambassador Mr. Ali Ahmad Popal, Ambassador Dr. Mohammad Hassan Sharq, Ambassador Mr. Abdul Hakim Ziayi Member of the first group of Afghan students in Japan Mr. Abudullah Yaftali Member of the first group of Afghan students in Japan