國立中山大學學位論文典藏.PDF

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1 Master Thesis Graduate Institute of Mainland China Studies National Sun Yat-Sen University AdvisorPh.D. Tse-kang Leng PRC Environmental Diplomacy in the Post Cold-War Era Participation in the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change Graduate StudentYung-ching Lo July2002

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4 Abstract As ecological deterioration getting worse and worse, the degree from global environment problem threat human life is more and more striking, and brings the rise of environmental diplomacy and global environmental politics. The PRC has wide territory, numerous population, and abundant natural resource, however after twenty years of modernizing, result in environment crisis. Since 1989, the PRC being forced to enhance her attention and participation in international environmental protection field by the pressure from domestic and foreign factors. The purpose of this thesis is to realize the details about the development of the PRC environmental diplomacy during the post cold-war era. The author try to combine domestic and international approaches, and use regime theory to analyze the actions of the PRC. The findings as follows: 1. The PRC make their objectives (ex : gain financial and technical assistance, improve the domestic environmental protection ability, modify her international image, etc. ) come true by holding the principles, including secure sovereignty, the unequal responsibilities between developed and developing countries, and developed countries should bare the major responsibilities of global environment problems. 2. The decision-making about the policy guide participation in the UN Framework Convention on Climate Change origins from the result of the bargaining between bureaucracies. Besides, climate regime can change the options of environmental and science agencies, but the effect doesn t show in ultimate decisions. 3. Although the PRC still fear participation in regime will let her sovereignty invaded and economic potential repressed, try to make long-term plans and make capital of foreign firms to improve her environmental protection abilities. Keywords : environmental diplomacy, international regime theory, UN Framework Convention on Climate Change, Kyoto Protocol, PRC ii

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8 < Brundtland ReportWCED Rio Summit Flemming Christiansen & Shirin M. Rai

9 3 Michel Oksenberg and Elizabeth Economy, China s Accession to and Implementation of International Environmental Accords , Asia/Pacific Research Center Working Paper, Stanford University, environmental 2

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12 9 Ronald Mitchell and Thomas Bernauer, Empirical Research on International Environmental Policy : Designing Qualitative Case Studies, Journal of Environment & Development, Vol.7, No.1, March 1998, pp

13 10 Ibid. 11 King, G., Keohane, R. O., Verba, S., Designing Social Inquiry : Scientific Inference in Qualitative ResearchNJ:Princeton University Press, 1994, p New York TimesWashington Post Internet database

14 Agenda 21 biodiversity World Bank, Advancing Sustainable Development: The World Bank and Agenda 21(Washington, D.C : World Bank,1997) Lawerence E. Susskind Lawrence E. Susskind, Environmental DiplomacyNegotiating More Effective Global Agreements (New York: Oxford University Press,1994), pp Marc Williams, International Political Economy and Global Environmental Change in John Vogler and Mark F. Imber eds, The Environment and International RelationsLondon : New York : Routledge, 1996, p Martin K. Whyte, The Study of Mainland ChinaSociological Research and the Minimal Data 7

15 8 Problem, Contemporary China, Vol.1,No.6(March 1991), pp.1-12.

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17 26 K. J. Holsti, International Politics : A Framework for Analysis Englewood Cliffs, N. J., Prentice Hall Inc., 5 th, Edition, 1988, p ,

18 Broadhurst, Arlene I. and Grant Ledgerwood, Environmental Diplomacy of States, Corporations and Non-Governmental Organizations : The Worldwide Web of Influence, International Relations Vol.9, No.2, August 1998, p Carroll John E., Environmental Diplomacy: An Examination and A Prospective of Canadian-U.S. Transboundary Environmental RelationsAnn Arbor, Mich.: University of Michigan Press,

19 37 Lawrence E. Susskind, Environmental DiplomacyNegotiating More Effective Global Agreements op. cit Hurrell Andrew and Benedict Kingsbury eds., The International Politics of the Environment, Actors, Interests, and InstitutionsNew Yo rk : Oxford University Press Inc., 1992, pp

20 40 Gareth Porter and Janet W. Brown, Global Environmental Politics,Boulder Colo. : Westview Press, 1996, p Ibid, pp

21 42 Gareth Porter and Janet W. Brown, Global Environmental Politics op. cit., p non-state actors epistemic communities non-governmental organizations multi-national corporations agenda Michael Clough, Grassroots Policymaking, Foreign Affairs, Vol.73, No.1Jan-Feb, 1994, pp Gareth Porter and Janet W. Brown, Global Environmental Politics op. cit., p Hurrell Andrew and Benedict Kingsbury eds., The International Politics of the Environment, Actors, Interests, and Institutions op. cit., p

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23 1 2 3 free rider 4 1 Timothy Doyle & Doug McEachern Jacobs M., The Green Economy, London: Pluto, 1991, pp Young O., International Governance, Ithaca, NY : Cornell U.P., 1994, p Olson Mancur, The Logic of Collective Action : Public Goods and the Theory of Groups, Cambridge, Mass. : Harvard University Press,

24 5 trade off Richard Falk : 6 supranational authority 7 8 decentralization 9 5 Grieco Joseph M., Cooperation Among Nations : Europe, America, and Non-tariff Barriers to Trade, Ithaca : Cornell University Press, 1990, p Richard Falk, This Endangered Planet : Prospects and Proposals for Human SurvivalNew York: Vintage Books, 1971,pp Elinor Ostrom, Governing the Commons : The Evolution of Institutions for Collective ActionNew York : Cambridge UP, 1990, pp Hedley Bull, The Anarchical Society : A Study of Order in World PoliticsLondon : Macmillan, 1977 C. Boyden Gray and David B. Rivkin, Jr., No Regrets : Environmental Policy, Foreign Policy, No.83Summer, 1991, pp John Dryzek, Rational EcologyOxford : Blackwell, 1987,ch

25 10 global governance political anarchy Hurrell Andrew and Benedict Kingsbury eds., The International Politics of the Environment, Actors, Interests, and InstitutionsNew York : Oxford University Press Inc., 1992, p anarchy supra-national authority Robert O. Keohane, After Hegemony: Cooperation and Discord in the World Political Economy, Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1984Axelrod R., The Evolution of Cooperation, New York: Basic Books, 1984 Oran Young, International Cooperation: Building Regimes for Natural Recourses and the Environment, Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, Pearce David ed., Blue2: Greening the World Economy London: Earthscan Publications, 1991, p Peter Haas, Saving the Mediterranean: the Politics of International Environmental Cooperation, New York: Columbia University Press, 1990 CFCs Richard E. Benedick, Ozone Diplomacy : New Directions in Safeguarding the Planet,Camb ridge, MA: Harvard University Press, Gunnar Sjostedt ed., International Environmental Negotiation, Sage Publications,

26 Non-Government Organization, NGOs 14 neorealism neoliberal institutionalism Risse Kappen, Bringing Transnational Relations Back In, International Organization, Vol.46, No.1Winter neoliberalism institutionalism liberal institutionalism Robert O. Keohane, International Institutions and State PowerBoulder, Columbia: Westview, 1989, p.2joseph M. Grieco, Understanding the Problem of International Cooperation: The Limits of Neorealism of Neoliberal Institutionalism and the Future of Realist Theory, in David A. Baldwin ed., Neorealism and Neoliberalism : The Contemporary Debate NewYork: Columbia University Press, 1993, p

27 16 17 States are positional, not atomistic, in character relative gains Kenneth N. Waltz, Man, the State and War : A Theoretical Analysis New York : Columbia University Press, Kenneth N. Waltz, Theory of International PoliticsReading, Mass: Addison-Wesley, 1979, pp Joseph M. Grieco, Anarchy and the limits of cooperation: a realist critique of the newest liberal institutionalism, International OragonizationVol.42, No.31988, pp Robert Gilpin, War & Change in World PoliticsNew York : Cambridge University Press, 1981Robert Gilpin, The Political Economy of International RelationsPrinceton, N. J. : Princeton University Press, 1987, pp

28 public goods marginal effect institutional history the uneven growth of power among states 20 nonrival nonexclusive public goods John J. Mearsheimer, A Realist Replay, International Security, Vol.20, No.1Summer, 1995, pp

29 Robert O. Keohane 1648 Treaty of Westphalia 22 Pail R. Viotti & Mark V. Kauppi determinism unitary, integrated maximize utilities Robert O. Keohane, Realism, Neorealism and the Study of World Politics, in Robert O. Keohane ed., Neorealism and Its CriticsNew York: Columbia University Press, 1986, p Pail R. Viotti & Mark V. Kauppi eds., International Relations Theory : Realism, Pluralism, GlobalismNew York: Macmmillan Press, 1993, pp Robert O. Keohane, Theory of World Politics: Structural Realism and Beyond, in Robert O. Keohane, International Institutions and State Power op. cit., pp Robert O. Keohane issue-areas Robert O. Keohane and Joseph S. Nye, Power and Interdependence : World Politics in Transition Boston: Little, Brown & Co.,

30 Robert O. Keohane, Theory of World Politics: Structural Realism and Beyond op. cit.,pp Robert O. Keohane, International Institutions and State Power op. cit.,pp Robert O. Keohane, International Institutions and State Power op. cit., p Robert O. Keohane, International Institutions and State Power op. cit., pp Robert O. Keohane, International Institutions : Two Approaches, International Stidies Quarterly, Vol , pp Robert O. Keohane, After Hegemony: Cooperation and Discord in the World Political Economy op. cit., pp,

31 32 33 interdependence Joseph S. Nye Robert O. Keohane interconnnectedness sensitivity vulnerability Robert O. Keohane, The Demand for International Regimes, in Stephen D. Krasner ed., International RegimeIthaca: Cornell University Press, 1983, pp Stephen D. Krasner, Regimes and the Limits of Realism : Regimes as Autonmous Variables, in Stephen D. Krasner ed., International Regime op. cit., p Robert O. Keohane and Joseph S. Nye, Power and Interdependence : World Politics in Transition op. cit., pp

32 transgovernmental high politics hierarchy Robert O. Keohane and Joseph S. Nye, Power and Interdependence : World Politics in Transition Boston: Little, Brown & Co., 1977, p Wapner Paul, Governance in Global Civil Society in Young Oran R. ed., Global Governance : Drawing Insights from the Environmental ExperienceIthaca NY: Cornell University Press, 1997, pp

33 Unilateralism strategy of reciprocity collective action / David Baldwin, Neoliberalism, Neorealism and World Politics, in David Baldwin, Neorealism and Neoliberalism : the Contemporary Debate, New York : Columbia University Press, 1993, pp Matthew Paterson, Understanding Global Environmental PoliticsLondon : Macmillan Press Ltd, 2000, p.2. 26

34 Pail R. Viotti & Mark V. Kauppi eds., International Relations 38 Robert O. Keohane, International Institution : Can Interdependence Work? Foreign Policy,Spring 1998, pp Axelrod R. and Keohane R., Achieving Cooperation Under Anarchy: Strategies and Institutions, World Politics Vol.38 No.11985, pp young O., The Politics of Regime Formation: Managing Global Resources and the Environment, International OrganizationSu mmer, 1989,pp ; Keohane R., After Hegemony op. cit. 40 Thomas C., Beyond UNCED: An Introduction, Environmental Politics Vol.4 No.41993, p.3. 27

35 Theory : Realism, Pluralism, GlobalismNew York: Macmmillan Press, 1993, p absolute gains Klinger 1994: Young 1994:1-8Haas & Keohane & Levy Klinger J., Debt-for-Nature Swaps and the Limits to International Cooperation on Behalf of the Environment, Environment PoliticsVol.3 No.21994, pp Young O., International Governance op. cit.; Haas P.M., Keohane R., Levy M.A. eds, Institutions for the EarthCambridge Mass : MIT Press,

36 Robert O. Keohane, International Institution : Can Interdependence Work? op. cit, pp ; Cheryl Shanks, Harold K. Jacobson, and Jeffrey H. Kaplan, Intertia and Change in the Constellation of International Governmental Oragonization, , International Organization, Vol.50, No.4 Autumn 1996, pp Marc Williams, International Political Economy and Global Environmental Change in John Vogler and Mark F. Imber eds, The Environment and International RelationsLondon : New York: Routledge, 1996,p critical theory Matthew Paterson, Understanding Global Environmental Politics, op. cit. 29

37 international institution CO 2 CH 4 N 2 O CFCs ~200 12~ Smith S., The Environment on the Periphery of International Relations : an Explanation, Environmental Politics Vol.2, No.4, p HFC S PFC S SF

38 60% ~290ppm1ppm ppm International Energy Agency, IEA % ~970ppm ppb1ppb 1700ppb 275ppb 310ppb 52 Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change, IPCC ~ %~70% Montreal Protocol 51 International Energy Agency, World Energy Outlook 2000Highlights, Feb 4, 2001 Available at 52 J.T. Houghton, G.J. Jenkins, J.J. Ephraums eds., Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change 1990: Climate Change: The IPCC Scientific Assessment, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1990 p Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change, Climate Change 2001 : The Scientific Basis Summary for Policymakers, July, 2001, pp.2-4. Available at 31

39 Roger Revelle (Hans Suess) Scripps Mauna Loa Conservation p

40 Foundation 1965 the President s Science Advisory Committee general circulation models, GCM 1970 National Academy of Sciences UN 58 Bodansky, Daniel, Prologue to the Climate Change Convention in Irving M. Mintzer and J. Amber Leonard ed, Negotiating Climate Change: The Inside Story of the Rio Convention, N.Y.: Cambridge University Press, 1994p Mattew Paterson, Explaining the Climate Change Convention: International Relations Theory and Global Warming, PhD thesis, Essex University, 1994, Chapter 4. 33

41 Environment Programme, UNEP World Meteorological Organization, WMO Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change, IPCC 1990 Second World Climate Conference Intergovernmental Negotiating Committee for a Framework Convention on Climate Change, INC/FCCC UN Framework Convention on Climate Change, UNFCCC anthropogenic greenhouse gases International Energy Agency, Climate Change Policy Initiatives,Paris: IEA,

42 reservoirs sinks

43 Montreal Protocol Joint Implementation, JI Annex I Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development, OECD National Communications Annex II

44 550ppm Conference of Parties, COP COP-3 Kyoto Protocol to the UNFCCC % 8% 7% 6% 10% 8%1% 5.2% 2008~ CO 2 CH 4 N 2 O HFCs PFCs SF Kyoto Mechanisms 1. Emission Trade, ET B J.T. Houghton, G.J. Jenkins, J.J. Ephraums eds., Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change 1996: Climate Change 1995: The Science of Climate Change, Contribution of Working Group I to the Second Assessment Report of IPCC Cambridge:Cambridge University Press, 1990, p

45 2008~ Joint Implementation, JI 2008~ Clean Development Mechanism, CDM ~ %

46 2001 : : anthropogenic greenhouse gases enhanced greenhouse effect 68 IPCC 2001: IPCC Third Assessment Report. Available at 69 Sandalow D.B. and I.A. Bowles, Fundamental of Treaty-Making on Climate Change, Science, Vol.292, pp

47 90 Organization of Petroleum Exporting Countries, OPEC The Alliance of Small Island States, AOSIS (European Union, EU) per capita 40

48 (the timing of climate change) JUSSCANNZ Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development, OECD B JUSSCANNZ Umbrella Group

49 JUSCANZ COP4 S- N- JUSSCANNZ European Union, EU Group of 77 and China 1967 UN Conference on Trade and Development, UNCATD

50 The Alliance of Small Island States, AOSIS Organization of Petroleum Exporting Countries, OPEC (CDM) Activities Implemented Jointly, AIJ carbon sink

51 2-3 Daniel Bodansky, The United Nations Framework Convention Climate Change: A Commentary, in Philippe Sands ed., Greening International Law,NY: The New Press, 1994,p

52 convention-protocol approach 1985 Vienna Convention database convention-protocol approach Susskind E. Lawrence, Environmental Diplomacy : Negotiating More Effective Global Agreements, Oxford : Oxford University Press, Richard E. Benedick, Ozone Diplomacy op. cit. 76 Hempel Lamont C., Greenhouse Warming-The Changing Climate in Science and Politics, Political Research Quarterly Vol.46, No.1 March 1993, p Helen Milner, International Theories of Cooperation Among Nations, World Politics, Vol.44, No.3, April 1992, pp

53 normative undertheorised 78 Robert O. Keohane Institutions are defined as persistent and connected sets of rulesformal and informalthat prescribe behavioral roles, constrain activity, and shapes expectations 79 convention regime organization 80 international regime legalism 78 Matthew Paterson, IR Theory : Neorealism, Neoinstitutionalism and the Climate Change Convention, in John Vogler and Mark F. Imber eds., The Environment and International Relations op. cit., p Robert O. Keohane, International Institutions : Two Approaches, op. cit., p implicit explicit Robert O. Keohane, International Institution and State Power, op cit., pp Robert O Keohane, International Institutions: Can Interdependence Work? op cit., p

54 international regime distribution of power interests ideas structure process regime John G. Ruggie 83 Robert O. Keohane Joseph M. Nye governing arrangement 84 Oran R. Young 85 Robert O. Keohane 82 Ibid, pp John G. Ruggie, International Responses to Technology : Concepts and Trends, International Organization, Vol.29, No.3, 1975, p Robert O. Keohane and Joseph S. Nye, Power and Interdependence : World Politics in Transition op. cit., p Young, Oran R. and Osherenko, Gail, The Formation of International Regimes : Hypotheses and Cases, in Young, Oran R. and Osherenko eds., Polar Politics : Creating International Environmental RegimesIthaca and London : Cornell University Press, 1984, p.1. 47

55 86 87 Stephen D. Krasner Regimes can be defined as sets of implicit or explicit principles, norms, rules, and decision-making procedures around which actors expectations converge in a given area of international relations Robert O. Keohane, International Institution and State Power : Essays in International Relations Theory, op. cit., p Marc A. Lavy, Oran R. Young and Michael Zurm, The Study of International Regimes, Working Paper , International Institute for Applied Systems Analysis, November 1994, p Krasner, Stephen D., Structural Causes and Regime Consequences, in Krasner, Stephen D ed., International Regimes op. cit., pp Martin List and Volker Rittberger, Regime Theory and International Environmental Management in Hurrell Andrew and Benedict Kingsbury eds., The International Politics of the Environment, Actors, Interests, and Institutions op. cit., p

56 operational definition O.R. Young, International Cooperation : Building Regimes for Natural Resources and the Environment, op. cit., p Martin List and Volker Rittberger, The Role of Intergovernmental Organization in the Process of Initiation, Implementation, and Evolution of International Environment Regimes, Paper prepared for the ESF Programme on Environment, Science and Society, Task Force VI meeting at Seville, Spain, 22-3 Feb, MS, Tubingen, Martin List and Volker Rittberger, Regime Theory and International Environmental Management op. cit., p Elinor Ostrom, Governing the Commons:The Evolutions of Institutions for Collective Action Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 1990, p Marc A. Lavy, Oran R. Young and Michael Zurm, The Study of International Regimes, op. cit., pp

57 95 evolutionary regimes 96 spontaneous negotiated imposed Robert O. Keohane, The Analysis of International Regimes: Towards a European-American Research Programme, in Volker Rittberger, ed., Regime Theory and International Relations, Oxford:Oxford University Press, 1993, p Peter M. Haas, Robert O. Keohane and Marc A. Levy, eds., Institutions for the Earth: Sources of Effective International Environmental Protection, Cambridge, MA: The MIT Press, Young, Oran R., Regime Dynamics : the Rise and Fall of International Regimes., International Organization, Vol.36, No.2 Spring, 1989pp

58 98 externalities 99 problem-structure approach 100 consensual dissensual Peter M. Haas and Jan Sundgren, Evolving International Environmental Law : Changing Practices of National Sovereignty, in Nazli Choucri ed., Global Accord : Environmental Challenges and International Responses Cambridge, Ma : The MIT Press, 1993, pp.405, Rittberger V. Research on International Regimes in Germany The Adaptive Internalization of an American Social Science Concept, in Rittberger V. ed., Regime Theory and International Relations, op. cit., pp Andreas Hasenclever, Peter Mayer, and Volker Ritterberger, Theories of International Regimes United Kingdom : Cambridge University Press, 1997, p

59 2-4 Andreas Hasenclever, Peter Mayer, and Volker Ritterberger, Theories of International Regimes United Kingdom : Cambridge University Press, 1997, p.64. condition-structure approach game theory Martin List and Volker Rittberger, Regime Theory and International Environmental Management op. cit., p Ibid p

60 2-5 (1) (2) (3) (4) (5) (6) (7) (8) Martin List and Volker Rittberger, Regime Theory and International Environmental Management in Hurrell Andrew and Benedict Kingsbury eds., The International Politics of the Environment, Actors, Interests, and InstitutionsNew York : Oxford University Press Inc., 1992, p.101. perception-epistemic communities approach epistemic communities Peter M. Haas network (1) Peter Haas, Introduction : Epistemic Communities and International Coordination, International Organization, Vol.46, No.1,1992, pp

61 105 :(1) 106 ; (2) : ;(3) : 107 ; ; lead state supporting state swing blocking or veto state ; ; Andreas Hasenclever, Peter Mayer, and Volker Ritterberger, Theories of International Regimes op. cit., p Robert O. Keohane and Joseph S. Nye, Power and Interdependence op. cit., p Marc A. Lavy, Oran R. Young and Michael Zurm, The Study of International Regimes, op. cit., pp Gareth Porter and Janet W. Brown, Global Environmental Politics Boulder Colo.: Westview Press, 1996, p

62 ( ) 109 : (John Kingdon) : ; ; ; 1992 ;1992 : Ibid. 110 John Kingdon, Agendas, Alternatives and Public Politicies, Boston: Little Brown, 1984, pp Marc A. Lavy, Oran R. Young and Michael Zurm, The Study of International Regimes, op. cit., p Harold K. Jacobson and Edith Brown Weiss, Implementing and Complying with International Environment Accords: A Framework for Research, a paper presented at the annual meeting of the American Political Science Association, San Francisco, Stokke, Olav Schram, Regimes as Governances Systems, in Young Oran R. ed., Global Governance op. cit., p Marc A. Lavy, Oran R. Young and Michael Zurm, The Study of International Regimes, op. cit., pp

63 ; (increasing concern) (increasing the contractual environment) (increasing the capacity of government) 117 : (Robert Keohane) 115 Oran Young, The Effective of International Institutions: Hard Cases and Critical Variables, in James Rosenau and Ernst-Otto Czempiel eds., Governance Without Government New York: Cambridge University Press, Oran Young, International Governance op. cit., Chapter Peter M. Haas, Robert O. Keohane and Marc A. Levy eds., Institutions for the Earth: Sources of Effective International Environmental Protection op. cit., Conclusion. 56

64 ( ) 118 ; (uncertainty) (credibility) (Ernst Haas) autonomy Robert O. Keohane, After Hegemony : Cooperation and Discord in the World Political Economy op. cit., chapter Williams M., International Economic Organizations and the Third World,Hemel Hempstead : Harvester Wheatsheaf, 1994, p

65 Hedley Bull Hedley Bull, The Anarchical Society op. cit., pp

66 Robert O. Keohane Principle 21, United Nations Conference on the Human Environment. 123 Abram Chayes and Antonia Handler Chayes, The New Sovereignty : Compliance with International Regulatory AgreementsCambridge : Havard University Press, 1995, pp Peter M. Haas, Robert O. Keohane and Marc A. Levy eds., Institutions for the Earth : Sources of Effective International Environmental Protection, op. cit., 1993, p

67 international arena 60

68 The Earth Summit Earth Summit sees action, treaty 61

69 on global warning signed, The China News, June 6, 1992, p Earth Summit Accords, Washington Post, June 14, 1992, A

70 8 Foreign Broadcast Information Service/China, August 13, 1991, p

71 U.S. Energy Information Administration, China, June,

72 65

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74 19 Lu Yingzhong, Fueling One Billion An Insider s Story of Chinese Energy Policy Development Washing D.C. : Washing Institute Press, 1993, pp Christoffersen, Gaye, China s Comprehensive Energy Policy, in Robinson, Thomas W. ed, The Foreign Relations of China s Environmental PolicyThe American Enterprise Institute for Public Research, August 1992, p Kenneth Lieberthal and Michael Oksenberg, Policy Making in China: Leaders, Structures, and Process Princeton, NJ:Princeton University Press, 1988, p Christoffersen, Gaye, China s Co mprehensive Energy Policy, in Robinson, Thomas W. ed, The Foreign Relations of China s Environmental Policy op. cit., p Perlack, Robert D., Milton Russell and Shen Zhongmin, Reducing Greenhouse Gas Emissions in China : Institutional, Legal and Cultural Constraints and Opportunities, Global Environmental Change Vol.3 No.1March, 1993, p

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78 39 Pamela, Baldinger, China s Green Markets, The China Business Review Vol.27, Issue 2 Washington, Mar/Apr, 2000, p Calder, Kent E., Asian s Empty Tank, Foreign AffairsVol.75, No.2March/April, 1996 ; Walker, Martin, China and the New Era of Resource Security, World PolicyVol.8 No.1Spring, New York Times 10 April

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81 54 Ross Lester, The Politics of Environmental Policy in the People s Republic of China, op. cit., p Ross Lester, Environmental Policy in ChinaBloomington and Indianapolis : Indiana University Press, 1988, pp

82

83 59 U.S. and Foreign Commercial Service, The Fading of Chinese Environmental Secrecy Hong Kong: American Consulate General, 23 March 1998, paragraphs Hertsgaard, Mark, Our Real China Problem, Atlantic MonthlyNov Elizabeth Economy, China Confronts the Challenge of Globalization : Implications for Domestic Cohesion and International Cooperation, op. cit., p Kenneth Lieberthal, China s Governing System and Its Impact on Environmental Policy Implementation, China Environment Series 1Woodrow Wilson International Center, p.4 Available at 76

84

85 78

86 68 Beijing Review, 23 June 1972, p.8 ; Lester Ross, Environmental Policy in China op cit., p Robert O. Keohane, Peter M. Haas and Marc A. Levy, The Effectiveness of Institutional Environmental Institutions, in P.M Haas, R.O. Keohane and M.A. Levy eds., Institutions of the Earth : Sources of Effective International Environmental Protection(Cambridge, MA : The MIT Press, 1994), p China DailyApril 1, 1998A

87 Samuel S. Kim, Environmental Security in Chinese Global Policy, in Thomas Robinson, ed., The Foreign Relations of China s Environmental Policy, op. cit., p

88 75 Ibid, pp ()( 1995 )

89 China DailyDec 16, 1995A1 81 WCED

90

91 < 84

92 < 85

93 < 86

94 87

95 88

96 89

97 ~

98

99

100 101 Beijing Review, July 8-14, 1991, p James C. Clad, Some Observations on Asia, Environmental Politicies and the Emergence of New Political Constituencies in Thomas Robinson, ed., The Foreign Relations of China s Environmental Policy, op. cit., p China EPA Head Discusses Challenges, Priorities, An October 1999 report from U.S. Embassy Beijing. 106 Environmental Objectives and Investment Requirements for China s 10 th Five-Year Plan, A November 2000 report from U.S. Embassy Beijing. 93

101 94

102 95

103 107 Guanli Lu and Kathleen Walsh, The Foreign Relations of China s Environmental Policy, in Thomas Robinson, ed., The Foreign Relations of China s Environmental Policy,Washington DC : American Enterprise Institute, 1992, p

104 109 ISO % 7%

105 98

106 112 David M. Lampton, Policy Implementation in the People s Republic of China Berkeley, CA:University of California Press, 1987Kenneth Lieberthal and Michael Oksenberg, Policy Making in China:Leaders, Structures, and Process Princeton, NJ:Princeton University Press, 1988 Kenneth G. Lieberthal and David M. Lampton eds., Bureaucracy, Politics, and Decision Making in Post-Mao China Berkeley, CA:University of California Press, /

107 114 Morton H. Haperin and Arnold Kanter, Introduction/The Bureaucratic Perspective : A Preliminary Framework, in Morton H. Haperin and Arnold Kanter eds, Readings in American Foreign Policy : A Bureaucratic Perspective(Boston : Little, Brown and Company, 1973), p Graham T. Allison, Essence of Decision: Explaining the Cuban Missile Crisis Boston:Little, Brown and Company, 1971, p.255 ; Flemming Christiansen & Shirin M. Rai Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development(OECD), Climate Change Policy Initiatives-1995/96 Update, Vol. II Selected Non-IEA Countries, 1996, p Kenneth Lieberthal and Michael Oksenberg, Policy Making in China : Leaders, Structures, and Process op. cit., p

108

109 120 National Research Council, China and Global Change : Opportunities for Collaboration Washington DC, 1992, p Ibid. 122 National Research Council, China and Global Change : Opportunities for Collaboration op. cit., p

110 123 Summary Articles for the CMA Climate Consultancy and Committee Meeting in Beijing, China, April 23-26, R.D. Perlack, M. Russell and Z. Shen, Reducing Greenhouse Gas Emissions in China, Global Environmental Change, Vol.3, No.1, March 1993, pp

111 126 Abigail R. Jahiel, The Organization of Environmental Protection in China, The China Quarterly, Dec 1998, p National Research Council, China and Global Change : Opportunities for Collaboration op. cit., p

112 105

113 129 National Research Council, China and Global Change : Opportunities for Collaboration, op. cit., pp

114 107

115 130 Bergesen, Helge Ole, The Credibility of Science in International Resource Management, in Andresen, Steinar and Willy Ostreng eds., International Resources Management : the Role of Science and PoliticsNew York : Belhaven Press, 1989, p

116 131 Paeson, Edward A., Protecting the Ozone Layer, in Peter M. Haas, Robert O. Keohane, and Marc A. Levy eds., op. cit., pp Peter Haas, Saving the Mediterranean: the Politics of International Environmental Cooperation op. cit. 133 Carol Lee Hamrin and Suisheng Zhao, Decision-making in Deng s China, Armonk, New York : M.E. Sharpe, 1995, p

117 134 Kenneth Lieberthal and Michel Oksenberg, Policy Making in China:Leaders,Structure,and Processes, op cit., pp

118 1 World Resources Institute, World Resources New York : Oxford Un iversity Press, 1994, pp.6166 and World Bank, Clear Water, Blue Skies : China s Environment in the New Century Washington D.C. : World Bank, 1997, p Summary Report prepared by a joint study team from NEPA, SPC, UNDP, and World Bank, China Issues and Options in Greenhouse Gas Emissions ControlWashington D.C. : World Bank, 1994, p Nielsen, Cgris P. and Michael B. McElroy, Introduction and Overview in McElroy, Michael B., Chris P. Nielsen, and Peter Lydon eds, Energizing China : Reconciling Environmental Protection and Economic GrowthNewton, MA : Harvard University Press, 1998, pp

119 A4 112

120 5 Sonja Boehmer-Christiansen, The International Reaearch Enterprise and Global Environmental Change, in John Vogler and Mark F. Imber eds., The Environment and International Relations London and New York : Routledge, 1996, p Daniel Bodansky, Prologue to the Climate Change Convention, in Irving M. Mintzer and J. A. Leonard eds., Negotiating Climate Change : The Inside Story of the Rio ConventionCambridge University Press, 1994,pp Chandrashekhar Dasgupta, The Climate Change Negotiations, in Irving M. Mintzer and J.A. Leonard eds., Nogotiating Climate Change : The Inside Story of the Rio Convention, op. cit, p

121 8 UN General Assembly Resolution 43/53, Daniel Bodansky, Prologue to the Climate Change Convention, in Irving M. Mintzer and J.A. Leonard eds., Nogotiating Climate Change : The Inside Story of the Rio Convention op. cit, p Ibid. 11 Daniel Bodansky, Prologue to the Climate Change Convention, in Irving M. Mintzer and J.A. Leonard eds., Nogotiating Climate Change : The Inside Story of the Rio Convention op. cit., pp Sonja Boehmer-Christiansen, The International Reaearch Enterprise and Global Environmental Change, op. cit., pp Ibid, p

122 14 The State Science and Technology Commission, No.5 Blue Book of Science and Technology of ChinaBeijing : China Meteorological Press, 1990, p.2 15 Ibid, p Elizabeth Economy, Chinese Policy-Making and Global Climate Change: Two Front Diplomacy and the International Community, in Elizabeth Economy and Miranda Schreurs ed., The Internationalization of Environmental Protection Cambridge University Press, 1997, p

123 17 18 National Research Council, China and Global Change : Opportunities for Collaboration Washington D.C., 1992, p National Research Council, China and Global Change : Opportunities for Collaboration op. cit., p

124 6 7 Summary Report prepared by a joint study team from NEPA, SPC, UNDP, and World Bank, China Issues and Options in Greenhouse Gas Emissions Control op. cit., p Zhou Xin, Advantage of Climate Changing to Warm, Beijing Review, June 9-15, 1997, pp Elizabeth Economy, Chinese Policy-Making and Global Climate Change: Two Front Diplomacy and the International Community, op. cit., p Gan Shijun, China s National Policy Responses to Global Warming paper presented at the American Geophysical Union Western Pacific Regional Meeting, Hong Kong, July 25-29, 1994, p

125 25 Elizabeth Economy, Chinese Policy-Making and Global Climate Change: Two Front Diplomacy and the International Community, op. cit., p Ibid, p National Research Council, China and Global Change : Opportunities for CollaborationWashington DC, 1992, p Michel Oksenberg and Elizabeth Economy, China s Accession to and Implementation of International Environmental Accords , Asia/Pacific Research Center Working Paper, Stanford University, 1998, p

126 30 31 Economy, Elizabeth, Negotiating the Terrain of Global Climate Change Policy in the Soviet Union and China : Linking International and Domestic PathwaysPh.D. Dissertation, University of Michigan, 1994; Elizabeth Economy, Chinese Policy-Making and Global Climate Change: Two Front Diplomacy and the International Community, op. cit. 119

127 32 Elizabeth Economy, Chinese Policy-Making and Global Climate Change: Two Front Diplomacy and the International Community, op. cit., p Martin Lees, China and the World in the Nineties, Conference Summary Report, Beijing, 25 Jan 1991, pp

128 34 Ibid, pp Foreign Broadcast Information Service, China Daily Report, 2 Nov 1990, p SSTC, Beijing Ministerial Declaration on Environment and Development, Beijing,

129 37 38 Daniel Bodansky, Prologue to the Climate Change Convention, in Mintzer Irving M. and J.A. Leonard eds. Negotiating Climate Change : The Inside Story of the Rio Convention op. cit, p Report of the First Session of the INC/FCCC, UN Document A/AC.237/6, March 8,

130 40 Report of the Second Session of the INC/FCCC, UN Document A/AC.237/9, August 19, Report of the Third Session of the INC/FCCC, UN Document A/AC.237/

131 42 Report of the Fourth Session of the INC/FCCC, UN Document A/AC.237/15, January 29, Report of the first part of 5 th Session of the INC/FCCC, UN Document A/AC.237/18Part 1March 10, 1992 and Report of the Second Part of the 5 th Session of the INC/FCCC, UN Document A/AC. 237/18Part , p Ibid. 124

132 46 Johnston, Alastair Iain, China and International Environmental Institutions : A Decision Rule Analysis, in McElroy, Michael B., Chris P. Nielsen, and Peter Lydon eds, Energizing China : Reconciling Environmental Protection and Economic Growth op. cit, p Elizabeth Economy and Michel Oksenberg eds., China Joins the World : Progress and Prospects New York : Council on Foreign Relations Press, 1999, p Chayes, Abraham and Charlotte J. Kim, China and the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change, in in McElroy, Michael B., Chris P. Nielsen, and Peter Lydon eds, Energizing China : Reconciling Environmental Protection and Economic Growth op. cit, p

133 50 Elizabeth Economy, Chinese Policy-Making and Global Climate Change: Two Front Diplomacy and the International Commu nity, op. cit.,p Global Environment Facility, GEF Johnston, Alastair Iain, China and International Environmental Institutions : A Decision Rule Analysis, in McElroy, Michael B., Chris P. Nielsen, and Peter Lydon eds, Energizing China : Reconciling Environmental Protection and Economic Growth op. cit., p

134 Foreign Broadcast Information Service, China Daily Report, 16 Jan 1991, p

135 56 Report of the United Nations Conference on Environment and Development, Rio de Janeiro, 3-14 June 1992, Volume III Statements Made by Heads of State or Government at the Summit Segment of the Conference, New York : United Nations, 1993A/CONF.151/26/Rev.1, pp Ibid, pp