International Buddhist College Seminar 2012 August 4, 2012, Penang. 国际佛教大学学术会议,2012, 马来西亚槟城

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2 International Buddhist College Seminar 2012 August 4, 2012, Penang. 国际佛教大学学术会议,2012, 马来西亚槟城

3 Contents Toshiichi Endo, Bodhisatta Ideal in Theravada Buddhism Charles Willemen, 'Pure Land' Buddhism and Sarvastivada. 净土佛教与一切有部 Kapila Abhayawansa, Cyclic Existence and the Theory of dependent origination Tilak Kariyawasam, Textual Evidence to prove Buddha s Omniscience Fa Qing, The 'Round' Doctrine of Tian Tai and Its Significance in Modern Times 天台宗的 圆融 思想及其现实意义 Lozang Jamspal, Outline of The Spread of the Buddha s teachings in Tibet and Beyond 源流 < 从说一切有部的无诤法看阿罗汉的利他行 > 国际佛教大学学术会议,2012, 马来西亚槟城 陳金輝 < 十住毘婆沙論 中觀思想初探 > 国际佛教大学学术会议,2012, 马来西亚槟城 陈秋平 < 马来西亚佛教慈善事业初探 > 国际佛教大学学术会议,2012, 马来西亚槟城... 74

4 Bodhisatta Ideal in Theravada Buddhism Toshiichi Endo, Centre of Buddhist Studies, The University of Hong Kong Introduction: Gotama Siddhattha was born a Sakyan prince to Suddhodana as his father and Mahāmāya as the mother. He led a luxurious life as a child. Not satisfied with the material comfort, he renounced the world at the age of twenty-nine in quest of an answer to the human suffering. He practiced severe austerities for six years. But realizing their futility and adopting instead the Middle Way, he finally attained Buddhahood at the age of thirty-five. Since then, he continued propagating his doctrines for the next forty-five years until his death at the age of eighty. 1 Canonical texts describe the Buddha s previous lives as Bodhisatta in a broad way. Sugimoto summarises six different usages of bodhisatta in the Nikāya-s as follows: (1) the bodhisatta who is imperfect and immature; (2) the bodhisatta who is still imperfect but surpassing that state; (3) the bodhisatta who is a wanderer and an ascetic; (4) the bodhisatta who is the master of meditation and a seer of the dhamma; (5) the bodhisatta at the time of his conception and birth; and (6) the bodhisatta who dreams of the (five) great dreams. 2 These types of bodhisatta can be classified broadly into two usages: one is the bodhisatta before the attainment of Enlightenment in the life of Gotama Buddha. References to this bodhisatta are often related by the Buddha himself in the following manner: Mayha pi... pubbe va sambodh anabhisambuddhassa bodhisattass eva sato... 3 Here the bodhisatta is depicted as a being seeking higher knowledge. No marked difference is seen between the bodhisatta and any other mendicant who also seeks the realization of the truth. This bodhisatta refers to Gotama Buddha s former state before his Enlightenment. The other is the bodhisatta used as a generic term referring to previous existences of any Buddha in the past. This usage is the result of accepting the plurality of Buddha-s (i.e. six previous Buddha-s) in the first four Nikāya-s and also of the generalization of events and anecdotes associated with the life of Gotama Buddha. It subsequently became applicable to any previous or future Buddha. Thus, the Mahāpadāna sutta 4 relates the stories of Vipassī Buddha beginning from the descent from the Tusita heaven onwards and the same stories are repeated in connection with the penultimate life of Gotama Buddha in the Acchariyabbhutadhamma sutta. 5 It is an extended usage of the first meaning of bodhisatta. This development is no doubt a result of the apotheosis of Buddha-s and culminates in the concept of dhammatā (general / common feature) common to all Buddha-s. However, the aspect of 1 The Pāli sources ascribe the Buddha s entering into Parinibbāna to the year 483 B.C. See W.Geiger, the Mahāvaṃsa, Colombo, 1950, pp. xxiv; etc. There have been controversies on the date of the Buddha s death between the Southern and the Northern traditions. The difference between the two traditions is about a hundred years: the latter generally accepts the date of his parinirvāṇa to be around 380 B.C. However, this question is not yet final. See H.Nakamura, Gotama Buddha - Shakuson no Shogai (Gotama Buddha : The Life of Sakyamuni), p. 49; Indo Kodai-shi (The Ancient History of India, Vol.II), pp. 409 ff; Kogen Mizuno, Shakuson no Shogai (The Life of Sakyamuni), pp.43 f; etc. 2 Sugimoto, T.: Pali Butten ni mirareru Bosatsu (Bodhisatta as see in the Pali Canons), pp M i 17, 91, 163, 240; S ii 169, iii 27, iv 233, v 263, 281, 317; A i 258, iii 240; etc. 4 D ii 1 ff. 5 M iii IBC Seminar 2012

5 altruism in the birth of a bodhisatta is seen emphasized repeatedly in the Canon. For instance, The Majjhima-nikāya says as follows: A being not liable to bewilderment (delusion) has arisen in the world for the welfare of the many-folk, for the happiness of the many-folk, out of compassion for the world, for the good, the welfare, the happiness of gods and men (M I, 21, 83) Little notable developments between the early canonical and the commentarial texts are seen except the Kathāvatthu reasserting the early discourses on the Bodhisatta, though some peripheral developments such as the 8 conditions to be fulfilled, taking a vow, to become a bodhisatta (Bv), the practice of pāramī-s (Cp), etc., are seen in late canonical texts. Bodhisatta-s in the Commentaries: The canonical texts interpret the term bodhi as the realisation of the Four Noble Truths (ariyasaccāni) 6 and the Seven Factors of Enlightenment (bojjhaṅga). 7 Later, the number of factors leading to enlightenment increased to thirty-seven of things pertaining to enlightenment (bodhipakkhiya-dhammā). The meanings of bodhi as the Four Noble Truths and Seven Factors of Enlightenment testify clearly that it can be achieved by anyone and the attainment of them is what is termed as arahantship. The commentarial literature, on the other hand, defines bodhi at several places. For example, In Buddhaghosa s commentaries commenting on the sammāsambodhi of the Tathāgata, bodhi is said to have four meanings: 1. (Bodhi) Tree (rukkha); 2. Path (magga); 3. Omniscient knowledge (sabbaññuta-ñāṇa); and 4. Nibbāna. 8 This classification becomes further expanded to a list of 6 meanings with the additions of 5. Fruit (phala); and 6. Designation (paññatti) in the Buddhavaṃsa-aṭṭhakathā of Buddhadatta. 9 Satta in the P li tradition is thought to be a sentient being who has not yet attained to the state of enlightenment. When used with bodhi (i.e. bodhi-satta), it signifies a being destined to become a Buddha or a being dedicated to enlightenment. The commentaries have different meanings attached to bodhi. Thus all the meanings of bodhisatta in the commentaries may be classified into four categories: 1. A wise or insightful being (pa ita, avant, pa avant, na andha-b la); 2. A being on the way to awakening (bujjhanaka-satta); 3. A being worthy of attaining samm sambodhi (samm sambodhi adhigantu araha) or striving for it (ta adhigam ya parakkama amu canto gata); 4. A being attached to or inclined towards bodhi (bodhiy satta, - satta, -lagga). 10 Of these, No.4 is arrived at as a derivative meaning corresponding to the Sanskrit sakta (/sa j). This sense of the word satta can also be seen in the Sa yutta-nikāya [iii 190] where it is given the meaning of attached to. This supports the above interpretation of the word. A perusal of 6 S v 423; etc. 7 S v 312 ff; etc. 8 VA v 952; MA I 54; iii 326; AA ii 19, 95; iii 257; etc. 9 BvA See T. Endo. Buddha in Theravada Buddhism, pp IBC Seminar 2012

6 the above classification reveals that the interpretation of bodhisatta in the Theravāda tradition rests on two premises: one is the being who seeks catumagga-ñāṇa. This is not necessarily the exclusive characteristic of the bodhisatta who is destined to attain Buddhahood, but it is rather the knowledge pertaining to arhantship. This is evident from the fact that one of the meanings of bodhi in the Aṭṭhakathā texts is said to be arahattamagga-ñāṇa. The other is the being who is described as a person worthy of attaining sammāsambodhi [see No.3 of the above classification of bodhisatta]. The commentarial notion of the term bodhi is clear. But the very acceptance and propagation of three possible ways to enlightenment in the Nikāya-s certainly endorses the thesis that early Buddhism already had this distinction, though it may not have been clearly discussed in them. The commentaries give three kinds of bodhi :1. Savaka-bodhi; 2. Pacceka-bodhi; and 3. Sammāsambodhi. This clear division and distinction in the commentarial tradition lend support to a further development in the application of bodhi to bodhisatta. Dhammapāla in his Theragāthā-aṭṭhakathā mentions three kinds of bodhisatta: 1) mahā-bodhisatta (or mahāsambodhisatta); 2) pacceka-bodhisatta; and 3) sāvaka-bodhisatta [ThagA I, 9-12]. When this theory is applied, one may infer that the Theravāda tradition of the commentarial period may have tried to keep abreast with Mahāyāna development where anyone would be a bodhisattva on the basis of the theory that there exists in every being the Buddha-nature. The Theravādins also tried to accept that even those aspiring to attain arahantship could be called bodhisatta-s. This seems to have had an important role in the political scene in Sri Lanka where it is believed that bodhisatta-s should become kings of Sri Lanka. 11 The commentarial development of three types of bodhisatta has another aspect. The emphasis came to be laid upon the deification of the Buddha, and the path leading to Buddhahood was made increasing difficult in terms of timeframe for its attainment. This serves two purposes: one is that a Buddhist should aspire to attain arhantship rather than Buddhahood, and the other is that the Buddha s greatness becomes further enhanced in the context of endeavours to further deify the Buddha. Therefore the career of a bodhisatta becomes a meaningful and importance subject to develop in the commentaries. The Career of a Bodhisatta: The career of our Bodhisatta (Gotama Bodhisatta) began when he took a vow to become a Buddha in front of the Buddha Dīpaṅkara. His career extends many aeons during which at least 24 Buddha-s appeared before him. Further the Buddhavaṃsa gives a list of 8 conditions such as a human being, male sex, etc. to be satisfied by anyone to become a bodhisatta. The long, almost unimaginable, length of time that Gotama Bodhisatta had to spend practising pāramī-s became a favourite subject for elaboration in the commentaries. Although the late Pāli work Buddhavaṃsa talks of 24 or 27 previous Buddha-s, and accordingly the commentaries also follow this number (at least 24), the Dhammapada-aṭṭhakathā believes that there had been innumerable past Buddha s (anekāni pana Buddhasatāni Buddhasahassāni atītāni ) (DhpA i 11). This is indeed a theoretical possibility though other commentaries do not make it clear. 11 W. Rahula. History of Buddhism in Ceylon, p. 96. Also see, Nandasena Mudiyanse. Mahāyāna Monuments in Ceylon, pp. 24 ff. 3 3 IBC Seminar 2012

7 The duration of the practice of pāramī-s a bodhisatta has to practise is calculated in terms of asaṅkheyya-s and kappa-s. Even bodisatta-s are divided into three classes depending on their intellectual ability and mental factors to practise and understand the Dhamma. The commentaries therefore give as follows: 1) wisdom (paññā); 2) faith (saddhā); and 3) energy (viriya). If the bodhisatta is foremost in wisdom (paññā), his duration of practice would be 4 asaṅkheyya-s (incalculable time) and 100,000 kappa-s; if foremost in faith (saddhā), duration of practice would be 8 asaṅkheyya-s and 100,000 kappa-s; and if foremost in energy (viriya), then it would be 16 asaṅkheyya-s and 100,000 kappa-s (SnA I 47 = ApA 139). Dhammapāla in this context refers to another view expressed by some (apare) in his Cariyāpiṭaka-aṭṭhakathā. It says that the bodhisatta who can grasp the Dhamma before the completion of a gāthā (uggjaṭitaññū), he will spend only 4 asaṅkheyya-s (incalculable time) and 100,000 kappa-s; if he is able to comprehend the Dhamma only after the completion of a gāthā (vipacita ), he will have to spend 8 asaṅkheyya-s and 100,000 kappa-s; and if he is capable of understanding only at the end of a discourse (neyya), his duration of practice will be 16 asaṅkheyya-s and 100,000 kappa-s (CpA 329). Discussing the notion of kappa (aeon), the commentaries has another development. This kappa is divided into 5 categories as follows: (1) sāra-kappa during which only one Buddha appears; (2) maṇḍa-kappa 12 during which two Buddha-s appear; (3) vara-kappa during which three Buddha-s appear, (4) sāramaṇḍa-kappa during which four Buddha-s appear, and (5) bhadda-kappa 13 during which five Buddha-s appear. The above five kinds of kappa belong to asuññakappa. 14 However there could be periods known as suññakappa in which no Buddha appears. When a bodhisatta makes a vow or resolve (panidhāna) to fulfil the ten perfections (pāramī-s), he is said not to be born in any of the 18 impossible states (abhabbaṭṭhāna). There are two lists available in the commentaries and the one in SnA [i 50] and ApA [141] seems to have been the newest development. The list contains the following: (1) Blind (jaccandha) (2) Deaf (jaccabadhira) (3) Insane (ummataka) (4) Deaf and dumb (e am ga) (5) Crippled (p hasappi) (6) Among babarians (milakkhesu) (7) Born of a slave woman (d siy kucchi hi nibbattati) (8) One with confirmed wrong views (niyatamicch di hika) (9) Of changeable sex (hermaphrodite) (li gam parivattati) (10) Among those guilty of committing the five actions which result in the immediately following (pa c nantariyakamma) (11) A lepper (ku h ) (12) Smaller than a quail, or larger than an elephant in size, if born an animal 12 Of the five kinds of kappa, ma akappa seems to be the only term appearing in the Buddhava sa [Bv XI v 2]. 13 D ii 2 mentions the word bhadda-kappa. However, the context in which it is used, suggests that its meaning is simply auspicious aeon, and not in the technical sense as found in the A hakath texts. Cf. DA ii 410: Bhaddakappe ti pa ca Buddh uppadapatimanditatt sundara-kappe s ra-kappe ti. 14 BvA IBC Seminar 2012

8 (13) Among the khuppip sikanijjh mata hika peta-s (14) Among the k laka jaka-s or in Av ci or lokantarika niraya-s (15) If born in k m vacara world, a M ra (16) If born in the r p vacara, among those lacking in consciousness (asa ibhava), or in the pure abode (suddh v sa) (17) In the ar pa world (18) In another world-system (a a-cakkav a). Some of the items such as (8), (14), (15), (16), (17), and (18) mentioned in the list are significant and are all within the doctrinal framework of Theravāda Buddhism. Moreover the theoretical background on which the list is based could be the Jātaka-s which show different places of Gotama Bodhisatta s rebirths. Even the item that a bodhisatta is not born the son of a slave woman (in the other list, it is as a woman - itthibhāva) can be viewed as an extension of the theory that a woman can never be a Buddha found in the Aṅguttara-nikāya. The Practice of Pāramī-s : Once the bodhisattva makes a firm resolve, he has to practice 10 perfections (pāramī-a). They are: 1) dāna (generosity / giving); 2) sīla (virtue / morality); 3) nekkhamma (renunciation); 4) paññā (wisdom); 5) viriya (energy); 6) khanti (patience); 7) sacca (truthfulness); 8) adhiṭṭhāna (determination); 9) mettā (loving-kindness / friendliness); and 10) upekkhā (equanimity). This number became subdivided into three levels of intensity as a) pāramī (perfection); b) upapāramī (higher perfection); and c) paramatthapāramī (highest perfection). In the Sanskrit tradition like Mahāyāna Buddhism, the list consists of 6 pāramitā-s. However, its order is somewhat different from that of the Theravāda tradition. They include: dāna, śīla, kṣānti, viriya, dhyāna, and prajñā. E.J.Thomas believes that the list in the Sanskrit literature should represent the proper order as it culminates in the fulfillment of wisdom (prajñā). 15 This perception is also discernible in Dhammapāla s understanding of the order of pāramī-s. He specifically mentions that in terms of true nature (sabhāva) the ten perfections can be reduced to 6. The order of it is the same as in the Sanskrit tradition. What is of the nature of Theravāda in Dhammapāla s understanding of the concept of pāramī-s is that he too accepts the classification of 30 perfections as well. The practice of perfections is not necessarily the province only of the bodhisatta. The term pāramī is used even to describe the knowledge of disciple s perfections (sāvaka-pāramī-ñāṇa) This concept is closely linked to the number of pāramī-s as disciples are expected to fulfill perfections just enough to attain arahantship. This in turn is linked to three kinds of bodhisatta-s, namely, sāvaka-bodhisatta, pacceka-bodhisatta, and mahā-bodhisatta. All these teachings are found in Dhammapāla s commentaries. In the Pakiṇṇakakathā of the Cariyāpiṭaka-aṭṭhakathā (CpA), Dhammapāla discusses several important issues related to the teaching of pāramī-s. Almost all teachings advocated by him can be found here, some in detail, others in brief. It has also been pointed out that some sections in this are similar to the ideas found in the Bodhisttvabhūmi of the Yogācārabhūmi. It was 15 See E.J. Thomas, The History of Buddhist Thought, p IBC Seminar 2012

9 initially pointed out by Bhikkhu Bodhi in his work 16 and a detailed study was published by K.Katsumoto of Japan. 17 The Bodhisatta-concept in Therevāda Buddhism underwent several changes and developments from the Canon to the commentarial literature. It could be a development to keep abreast with what was happening in Indian Buddhism at that time. The Theravādadins however tried their best to confine its teachings to the domain of their own understanding of Buddhism. As a result, whatever developed in course of time can be framed well within the basic teachings of the Theravāda tradition. 16 Bhikkhu Bodhi. The Discourse on the All-Embracing Net of Views: The Brahmaj la Sutta and Its Commentaries, Buddhist Publication Society (BPS), Kandy, 1978, p K.Katsumoto. Cariy pi aka hakath and Bodhisattvabh mi: Inclusion of the Doctrines of Yog c ra School in the P li Commentaries, Bukkyo Kenkyu (Buddhist Studies), Vol.34, Japan, 2006, pp IBC Seminar 2012

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12 Cyclic Existence and the Theory of dependent origination - Kapila Abhayawansa - As we all know, the concepts of cyclic existence (samsāra) and the theory of dependent origination (paticca-samuppāda) are very popular topics in Buddhism. Therefore, it is true to say that there is no one among the Buddhists who does not come across these two Buddhist concepts. The popularity of these two concepts is mainly due to the fact that they have to play a major role in our life process according to Buddhism. On the other hand these two concepts encompass entire teachings of the Buddha. Buddhism accepts that the life process of a being is not confined only to one life span. There is a continuation of the existence of being so long as the causes and conditions which led to the birth of a being are provided. That was the reason why the Buddha advocated that the beginning point O monks this cyclic existence of the beings who are running and wandering enwrapped by the impediment of ignorance and fettered by craving is having unknown beginning. The beginning point of it is not to be discerned. (Anamtaggoyam bhikkhave samsaro pubbā koti n paññāyati avijjānivaranānm tanhāsamyojanānam sattānam sandhāvatam samsaratam). This continual existence of a being is known as Sansāra or Cyclic existence. Here it should be emphasized that Buddhism does not accept a concept of a common sansāra where all the beings are occupied. It is the Buddhism that accepts individual sansāra for each and every individual being. Therefore according to Buddhism Sansāra of a being is different from that of another being. By accepting cyclic existence, Buddhism goes against the materialistic or nihilistic explanation of the existence of the beings. As materialism enumerates that the beings are the products of material compositions, there cannot be a continuation of the life after the effective power of the material composition is terminated. Therefore, according to materialism the moral or ethical responsibility of a being is not granted as important to the continual existence of his life. It is the view of materialists that there is nothing which produces the continuity of life after the death of beings that are the mere products of material elements. As materialists reject the rebirth after the death, they maintain that the pleasure by any means is the aim of the life. An ancient Indian materialist Charvaka says: Yāvajjīvam sukham jivet _ ṛṇam kṛtva gṛtam pibet Bhashmīkṛtassya dehasya punaragamana kutah It means that live happily as long as you live. Enjoy with the delicious thing whatever you want even taking loan (if money is not enough). When the body is burned to ashes, from where one can return. Rejecting materialistic view, Buddhism emphasizes that a being has a spiritual principle known as mind or consciousness which is not regarded as a product of the material composition of the being. This mind is said to be responsible for bringing out mental formations (Sankhāra or Karma) 1 9 IBC Seminar 2012

13 which find expression through our volitional activities. The concept of mental formation has a great significance in Buddhist concept of Sansāra or Cyclic existence. It is the mental formation that brings out a new consciousness for a new life span of a being. Therefore, Buddhism maintains the concept of Sansāra as against materialism or nihilism emphasizing the value of volitional activities which are supposed to be moral or ethical conducts of the beings. Though Buddhism upholds the concept of cyclic existence, it rejects the idea of soul which is supposed to be the abiding entity between one life span and the other. Therefore, according to Buddhism, there is no any eternal life principle which is going through one life to another life constituting one and same series of existence. In maintaining concept of Sansāra Buddhism rejects both nihilism and eternalism. Buddhist concept of cyclic existence has its own identity which is quite different from other theories of existence advocated by other religious thinkers contemporary to the Buddha. Upanishadic thinkers prior to the Buddha held the view that there is an eternal, indestructible and unchanging entity known as soul which going one life to another life. This idea of Upanishdic thinkers is quite evident from the following quotation from Kaṭhopanishad. Na jāyate mṛiyate vā vipascit Nāyam kutascit na babhũva kascit Ajo nithyam sāsvatoyam purāno Na hanyate hanyamāne sarīre (This soul does not get birth, does not die yet is conscious. This does not come from anywhere. It was not anything. It is unborn, eternal, everlasting and ancient. Though the body is destructed, this is not subject to destruction) The identity of Buddhist concept of cyclic existence is brought forward by the theory of dependent origination (paticca-samuppada). According to Buddhism, this theory signifies the reality of the beings and of the world. Buddhism explains cyclic existence of the beings in terms of the theory of dependent origination. This is really the middle doctrine advocated by the Buddha rejecting aforementioned both the theories namely nihilism and eternalism. This theory denotes the fact that every thing in the world exists depending on causes and condition. Our experience reveals that there is nothing in the world which is arisen without causes and conditions. The famous Buddhist scholar Ăcārya Nāgārjuna puts it in the following way in his monumental work Mūlamūdhyamaka-kūrika: Apratītyasamutpanno kascit dharmah na vidyate (there is no anything which is arisen unconditionally) Therefore, every thing in the world including beings is the production of the causes and conditions. If something is produced its inevitable nature is the destruction. This real nature of the things is nicely formulated in the following sentence in the Dhammacakkappavattana-sutta: Yam kiñci samudayadhammam sabbam tam nirodhadhammam. (Whatever is subject to origination is all subject to cessation). Origination and the cessation are the marks or signs of the existence. When there is an origination of some thing it is wrong to say 2 10 IBC Seminar 2012

14 that something does not exist. Similarly when there is a cessation of something it is wrong to say that some thing exists. This was made clear nicely By the Buddha in the discourse of Kaccangotta in the following way: Those who perceive the emergence through the right insight do not have the wrong view of utter destruction and those who perceive the cessation through the right insight do not have the wrong view of eternal existence (Lokasamudayam kho kaccāyana yathābhūtam sammappaññāya passato yā loke natthi sā na hoti. Lokanirodham kho kaccāyana sammappaññāya passato yā loke atthi vā sā nahoti). The Buddha rejected both the views as wrong views not only because they represent what is not really existent in the world but also because they are harmful to the real spiritual perfection of the beings. Concept of permanent soul leads to the wrong notions of I and mine which are the sources of all the defilements. They are considered to be the obstacles to the path leading to the cessation of suffering. When both the theories which explain the existence of being are rejected by Buddhism there arises a question as to how Buddhism maintains the concept of cyclic existence. As mentioned earlier, the way how Buddhism establishes the concept of cyclic existence of the being is explained by means of dependent origination. What is the dependent origination? It is the governing low over each and every phenomenon in the world. As a theory it is the conditionality of the things in the world. (idappaccayatā) It is the nature of the things ( dhammatā) and it is the natural low which governs the universe (dhamma-niyāmatā). As a theory it is given in the following formula by the Buddha: Asmin sati idam hoti imassa uppādā idam uppajjati. Asmin asati idam na hoti. Imassa nirothā idam nirujjhati When the cause is present, the effect comes to be; from the arising of cause, effect arises. When the cause is absent, the effect does not come to be; on the cessation of the cause, effect ceases. The formula of the theory of dependent origination signifies necessarily the conditional arising of the thing. The formula is consisted of two pairs of statement which express respectively the emergence and the dissolution of any phenomena. Therefore it may be important to inquire into the reason why the Buddha used two statements to give rise to same meaning. It is the nature of the Buddha that he has never spoken anything what is unnecessary in his teachings. Therefore it is certain, that the each statement of the pair has its particular significance. To bring out the significance attached to each satatement of the formula, we need to pay our attention separately to each statement. The first statement that when the cause is present the effect comes to be implies the necessary relation between cause and effect affirmatively. It says on the one hand, that to have an effect there should necessarily be a cause and on the other, nothing can arise without a cause. The second 3 11 IBC Seminar 2012

15 statement that from the arising of cause, effect arises indicates that the cause is also subjected to arise. The term Uppādā (Arising or emergence) of something used in the second statement necessarily implies causal or conditional arising. This indicates that nothing can come to exist without a cause or in other word; there can not be uncaused cause just like God, Atman or Brahman. These two statements together signify that everything in the world has a conditional arising. Here it should be mentioned that this theory of dependent origination explains the nature of existence whether it belongs to present, past or future. Therefore the question how this theory of dependent origination explains the cyclic existence remains in our discussion still unsolved. Answer to this question was not neglected by the Buddha. Though, the Buddha pointed out the nature of our existence by way of dependent origination as it is the reality of beings, he did not forget to explain the way how this existence becomes a cyclic existence. In this regard we have to focus our attention to the usage of the term Paticca-samuppāda in the discourses of the Buddha. In some places we can find the term paticca-samuppāda merely denoting the reality of the world just as in the formula mentioned above. In this sense the Buddha. characterized this reality by the terms such as Dhammatā, Dhammaṭṭhitatā, Dhamma-niyāmatā and idappaccayatā which refer to conditionality causality or dependency of the things. In addition to that we can find the same term Paticca-samuppāda used by the Buddha to denote the conditional existence of the beings in the Sansara which we called cyclic existence. In this usage the formula of Paticcasamuppada is quite different from the aforementioned formula. As we all know this formula of Paticcasamuppāda is consisted of twelve links. Even presenting this formula the Buddha introduces it as Paticca-samuppada. Before presenting it to the monks Buddha Usually mentions O monk I preach you the Paticca-samuppāda. (Paticcasamuppādam vo bhikkhave desisami). It seems that most of our present day Buddhists wrongly identify this twelve linked paticca- samuppāda as the paticcasamuppāda doctrine of the Buddha. It was really presented by the Buddha not as the doctrine or theory of dependent origination but as the explanation of the conditional existence of the Sansaric life. The main purpose of the Siddhartha Gautama in attaining the enlightenment was to find out the way to get rid of the sansaric existence. It was mentioned by the Buddha in the ariyapariyesana sutta in the following way: this world has fallen upon trouble. There is getting born and growing old, and dying and falling and being reborn. And yet from this suffering an escape is not known, even from decay-and-death. O when shall escape from this suffering, even from decay-and-death, be revealed? Therefore, the Buddha wanted to show the way how this cyclic existence comes into being and also how this existence comes to an end. That was the reason why the Buddha presented twelve linked Paticcasamuppada in ascending and descending orders in order to explain the way how this cyclic existence come to be and the way how this existence which is full of suffering cease to be IBC Seminar 2012

16 When we accept the concept of Sansāric existence, the connection between past life and the present life as well as the connection between present life and the future life have to be taken for granted. The way how the past life gets connected with the present life in Buddhist explanation is not different from the way how present life gets connected with the future life. Therefore, to understand the sansāric existence in Buddhist perspective it will be sufficient to know the way how two life periods get connected as an unbroken process. Life is considered to be a causally conditioned process in Buddhism. Life of a being starts with the birth. According to Buddhism, birth is none other than an arising of consciousness (viññāna) together with name and form (nama-rupa) in the mother s womb. It is shown in the discourses as a coarising occurrence. (viññāna-paccayā nāma-rũpam, nāma-rūpapaccayāviññānam). When the effective power of consciousness and the nama-rupa come to an end it is called death of a being. As the life in between birth and death is an empirical process, there is no an inexplicable question with regard to its conditional existence. But, in Buddhist concept of cyclic existence, causal relation between death of a life process and birth of a new life process is not known by our sensory experience. The Buddha who realized the entire causal process revealed us that when the last consciousness at the death is ceased; a mental formation or sankhara, in other word, Karma becomes the cause for arising of a new consciousness together with nāma-rūpa to start a new life process. This is shown by the Buddha in the twelve linked formula of Paticc-samuppāda at the stage of Sankhāra-paccayā viññānam and Viññāna-paccayā nāmarūpam. In this way, Buddhism establishes cyclic existence of the being without falling either to nihilism or to eternalism. It is worthwhile to mention here that some Buddhists are of the view that the twelve linked Paticca-samuppāda does not talk about three life spans to establish the cyclic existence and it is confined only to one life span. In my opinion this view is an outcome of an attempt to understand twelve linked paticca samuppāda as the theory of Paticca-samuppāda. Really this twelve linked Paticca-samuppāda does not grasp the complete causal occurrences in a life process. The real purpose of presenting twelve linked Paticca-samuppāda formula is to show the emergence of entire mass of suffering throughout the sansaric life. It is quite evident from the statement of the Buddha presented at the end of the formula. It says that in this way the entire mass of suffering comes to be. (Evametassa kevalassa dukkhakkhandhassa samudayo hoti.) If there is no relevance of this formula of Paticca-samuppāda to the cyclic existence, there is no need to show Sankhāra as the cause for Viññāna in the formula as our empirical consciousness does not arise because of the Sankhara according to Buddhism. There are six kinds of empirical objects which are considered to be the causes for our sex kinds of empirical consciousness. It was pointed out by the Buddha in the Madhupindikasutta. This particular consciousness which is the result of Sankhara given in the formula is not an empirical consciousness as it is not an effect of empirical objects. Therefore, the Sankhāra in the formula necessarily 5 13 IBC Seminar 2012

17 refers to the previous karmic formations done in any of the past existence and thereby Buddhism establishes the cyclic existence of the beings IBC Seminar 2012

18 Textual Evidence to prove Buddha s Omniscience Prof. Dr. Tilak Kariyawasam During the time of the Buddha there were some teachers belonged to Śramana tradition in India claimed to have omniscience. Those were Nigaņṭha Nātaputta and Pūrana Kassapa. Among these two teachers Nigaņṭha Nātaputta was the famous one and he claimed all- knowledge (Sabbaññū), all-seeing (Sabbadassāvi) professed unlimited knowledge and vision (aparisésaṁ ñānadassanaṁ paṭijānāti) by saying whether I am walking or standing still or asleep or awake, knowledge and vision permanently and continuously before me 1. In this manner he claimed that he knows and sees everything every time in whatever way he was. Pūraņa Kassapa also claimed in similar manner. 2 But the Buddha criticized and rejected this claim pointing out that the persons who claimed to have this kind of all knowledge went to empty houses for begging. When they walked on the roads dogs have bitten them. They encountered fierce horses, fierce cows. They inquired the road ways for unknown villages, markets and towns and they asked the names of the people. 3 Buddha rejected the claim of those teachers with regard to allknowledge (omniscience) purely on the logical grounds. The Buddha realized that it is not possible to know and see everything at once, he knew that knowledge is not a result of an automatic function and it is by deliberation one can have knowledge on some matters. At the same time the Buddha knew that Nigaņṭha Nātaputta was 1 15 IBC Seminar 2012

19 misled by his Knowledge of Divine Eye (Dibbacakkhu Ňāna) to think that he obtained omniscience. Omniscience was a wrongly used concept According to the following evidences which could have gathered from the Pali Nikāyas the term Omniscience (Sabbaññuta Ňāna) was wrongly used. 1. The Teachers who claimed to have this omniscience have been disapproved by their behaviour. Such as going for begging to empty houses and entering to roads where some dogs have bitten them, going on the paths where they came across fierce horses, fierce cows and fierce elephants, inquired the road ways for the unknown markets, towns and villages. 2. If some teachers achieved omniscience that knowledge should have been the same and could not be different. That means they could not have mentioned opposite views regarding the same knowledge. As mentioned in the Aṅguttara Nikāya two Brahmins visited the Buddha and reported to have said that Pūraṇa Kassapa who claimed to have omniscience has declared with infinite knowledge I abide knowing, seeing a finite world. 4 Nigaṇṭha Nātaputta also claimed to have omniscience and declared with infinite knowledge I abide knowing, seeing infinite world The omniscience was believed at that time in the sense that one can have knowledge of all at once. The Buddha in the Kaṇṇakatthala Sutta 6 has denied that and said that no one can see and know all at once (sakideva sabbaṁ jānāti passatīti nétaṁ ṭhānaṁ Vijjati) IBC Seminar 2012

20 4. Buddha mentioned in Cūla Sakuludāyi Sutta, one could answer for one s question if he pays attention towards that particular matter. The Pali word used here is Cittaṁ ārādheyya (if the mind is turned to wards that). No knowledge will arise in the mind without turning the mind towards that particular matter. Buddha s Rejection of Omniscience The Buddha denied that he has omniscience explained in the above mentioned way. In the Tevijja Vacchagotta Sutta, 7 Brahmin Vacchagotta came to see the Buddha to enquire into whether the Buddha also claimed to have such an all Knowledge. Then the Buddha replied negatively and said If someone says that I claim such unlimited knowledge, he is misrepresenting me keeping on to me with what I do not have. Then Brahmin Vacchagotta enquired in what way one can speak rightly about the Buddha without misrepresenting with what is not fact. Then the Buddha said if anyone says the recluse Gotama is Threefold Knowledge Person, (tevijjo samano gotamo) then he is not misrepresenting me and not talking with what is not fact. In this manner the Buddha rejected his omniscience and claimed to have Three-Fold (Tevijjā) knowledge by which he could have done even other contemporary teachers could not do. Threefold Knowledge is: (1) Recollection of Previous Existence (Pubbenivāsānussati ñāna), (2) Divine-eye (Bibbacakkhu ñāna), (3) Destruction of Defilements (Āsavakkhaya ñāna). This Threefold Knowledge is very important to achieve final liberation. The Knowledge of Destruction of Defilements is the knowledge 3 17 IBC Seminar 2012

21 through which one attains to Arhanthood after elimination of kléśas (Defilements). The other two knowledge also function very widely to provide answers for various issues. Buddha also mentioned in the Cūla- Sakuludāyi Sutta 8 for the questions about past (Pubbanta) and future (Aparanta) could be answered by a person who has achieved the Knowledge of Recollection of Previous Existence (Pubbénivāsānussati ñāna) and the Devine Eye (Dibbacakkhu Ňāna). In this manner the Buddha rejected the omniscience because it had so many weak points and could not answer for any question regarding life, previous or life after. Further the Buddha clearly knew that there is no automatic knowledge without proper attention. According to the Buddha the highest form of knowledge achievable by a human being is the so called Threefold Knowledge (Tevijjā). Later Ascription of Omniscience to the Buddha The Pali text of Paṭisambhidā Magga, written at the time of the development of Abhidharma tried to prove the Omniscience of the Buddha by 47 ways. 9 This 47 ways have not exceeded the description given in the main pali Nikāyas except in one point. That is Knowing everything in the future (Anāgataṁ sabbaṁ jānātīti sabbaññuta ñānaṁ). As Jayatillake 10 points out this kind of omniscience was not clearly accepted by the Buddha himself. But this kind of ascription of omniscience to the Master was necessitated for the devoted disciples. India was a religious laboratory in the 6 th Century B.C. and since then till 7 th Century A.C IBC Seminar 2012

22 religious debates were continued in a large scale and in those debates the very important question which could have raised by the opponents was that whether your Master was Omniscient (Sabbaññū) one or not? Buddhist Students could not say No. That is why they could have added this 47 seven ways of proof for the omniscience of the Buddha. The authors of Paṭisambhidā Magga had tremendous moral support to write in this manner from the usage of epithets to the Buddha in the Nikāyas Sabbaviduṁ 11 (known of all), Sabbaṁ passati cakkhumā 12 (the seer who sees all). The term Lokavidu 13 ( knower of the world) also have to combine here as it also have the meaning similar to All. In that manner Sabbavidu and Lokavidu both denote the same meaning. Sabba and Loka explain below. Milindapañha as a Post Canonical text also interpret s the Buddha s omniscience according to the way that the Buddha explained how he can answer for some of the questions. When King Milinda questioned Venerable Nāgaséna with regard to the omniscience of the Buddha Venerable Nāgasena replied that the Buddha was an omniscient, but his knowledge and vision was not constantly and continuously present. Buddha s omniscient knowledge was dependent on his mind adverting. When he adverted he could know whatever he wanted to know IBC Seminar 2012

23 What are the textual evidences to prove the Buddha s Omniscience It is an interpretational question why and how the authors of Paṭisambhidā magga could not investigate the two terms Sabba (All) and Loka (World) to find out the way to say the Buddha was a Sabbaññū (Omniscience). If these two terms are properly analysed to get the real meaning, it is possible to find the way to prove the Buddha s omniscience. The natural tendency may appears to investigate the term Sabba when compared with the formation of the word Sabbaññū. It is a joined word with Sabba (all) and ñū (to know)= Sabba+ñū = Sabbaññū meaning Knowledge of all = All knowledge. It is an interesting to know how the Buddha himself analysed the word Sabba in order to supply very valuable interpretation which was led to give the real Buddhist interpretation for the term Sabbaññū. Saṁyutta Nikāya records the Buddha s statement as follows: What brethren, is the all (sabba). It is the eye and object, ear and sound, nose and scent, tongue and savours, body and tangibles, mind and mind states. That brethren is called the all. 15 According to the above mentioned interpretation the Buddha gave a philosophical meaning to the word Sabba for him sabba means the whole wold of sense experience. 16 We will get into the whole wold through our sense experience. Without sense experience there is no world at all for us. That is the 6 20 IBC Seminar 2012

24 reason why the Buddha elsewhere explained the world (Loka) also on the basis of these sense experience. Through the eye, brethren, one is conscious of the world, has the conceit of the world, through the ear, the nose, tongue and body, through the mind one is conscious of the world, has conceit of the world. That is called the world (loka) in the Aryan discipline. 17 These explanations about the words Sabba and Loka help us to understand the Buddhist conception of Sabbaññuta (Omniscience). As explained above, the knowledge of everything means the knowledge of the sense experience, and knowledge of sense experience is knowledge of the world, that is, knowledge of everything in the world (Sabbaññū). In this sense one can say the Buddha was Sabbaññū (Omniscient). Human being is the model of the world. He becomes the model of the world with his sense experience. On the basis of this point the Buddha states that this world is within the human body and no where else. The Buddha made it clear nicely in the following way: In this very fathom- long body, along with its perception and thoughts, I proclaim the world to be, likewise the origin of the world, and its cessation (Nirodha), and the path (magga) leading to the cessation. 18 According to this explanation if someone fully realizes the nature of human body he fully comprehends everything in the world. This is the real omniscience anyone can achieve. But some say this is not the omniscience and omniscience may be a different knowledge. From the beginning it was mentioned that Omniscience is a wrongly used concept. If it is a wrongly used concept, a proper 7 21 IBC Seminar 2012

25 concept should be discovered. As this is a very valuable information could have been gathered from the Nikāyas to the effect of the omniscience of the Buddha it is not wrong to say this is the Buddhist definition of omniscience. End Notes 1. A.iv A.iv M.i.519 Sandaka Sutta. 4. A.iv A.iv M.ii. 127, 7. M.i M.ii.31 Cula-Sakuludayi Sutta 9. Paṭisambhida agga. 10. Jayatillake, Early Buddhist Theory of Knolwedge. 11. S.i S.i Lokavidu 14. Milinda, āvajjana paṭibabaddhaṁ sabbaññuta ñānaṁ 15. S.iv S.iv.15, M.i S.iv.95, A.iv.430 cakkhunā lokasmiṁ hoti lokasaññi loka māni 18. A.ii IBC Seminar 2012

26 The Round Doctrine of Tian Tai and Its Significance in Modern Times Fa Qing International Buddhist College, Thailand Abstract Tian Tai is one of the Earliest Mahāyāna Buddhist schools founded in the 5 th Century in China. It stresses on both doctrinal study and meditation practice. Its theory of practice covers all aspects of Buddhism such as meditation, repentance and ritual practice. For Tian Tai, different theories and practices in Buddhist schools are all valid because they are upāya (expedient means) and ultimately lead people to the Buddhahood. Tian Tai's Classification of Teachings values all schools and unites all Chinese Buddhists. When Tian Tai became an established school in Korea, it allied all Korean Buddhism traditions. It has been the source for all Japanese Buddhist schools. The round and innerinclusive doctrines of Tian Tai contain all Buddhist doctrines and its theory of meditation covers both śamatha (zhi) and vipaśyana (guan). In this paper, the round doctrine of Tian Tai will be examined and its significance that contributes to a harmonious and peaceful society will be analyzed IBC Seminar 2012

27 Chinese Buddhism and Its Core Features The development of Buddhist thoughts in India may be chronologically described as thus: The different interpretations of the Buddha s teachings gave rise to the Buddhist schools. Followers of these early Buddhist schools, except the Sautrāntikas, can be called Ābhidharmikas because all of them believe in the theory of dharmas, and have their own Abhidharma literatures. Most scholars agree that the Mahāyāna schools arose in the process of reacting to and opposing the interpretation of dharmas by the Abhidharma schools. The earliest form of Chinese Buddhism was introduced to China via central Asia, and the doctrines were mainly those of Sarvāstivāda Abhidharma and early Mahāyāna literatures. In the development of Buddhist thoughts in China, first the meditation texts were translated into Chinese adopting the prevalent Taoist and Confucian terms. Early Mahāyāna Buddhist literature such as the Prajñāpāramitā and the works of Nāgārjuna were introduced into China at the early stage. With translations by Kumārajīva, the Chinese started to understand the Indian thoughts more accurately. There was no more reading of Taoist and Confucian notions into the Buddhist texts. The early Chinese schools, such as Pure Land, San Lun (Madhyamaka), Tian Tai (based on Madhyamaka, Prajñā and Lotus Sutra respectively), and Hua Yan (Avaṃtasaka) schools were developed by the Chinese. Subsequently, in the Tang Dynasty, with the new translations made by Xuang Zang, the Chinese Fa Xiang (Yogācāra) School was formed. Later, the Zhen Yan (Tantra) school became popular among the Chinese Tang court. Following the arising of the Chan School and neo-confucianism, academic activities declined in the tradition of Chinese Buddhism. It may be said that the history of Buddhism in China is a history of translation of the Indian Buddhist texts. These texts came to exert much influence on the development of the Chinese Buddhist tradition. The Feature of Chinese Buddhism When discussing on Chinese mind, Inada K. Kenneth agrees with Fung Yu-lan s notion that the Chinese mind is one endowed with a continental spirit on which the unique Chinese culture or civilization was created. 1 The term "continental" depicts a huge land mass, a vastness, an illimitable nature, and the term "spirit" is modified with the same nature, a spirit that is huge, large, extensive, holistic, totalistic and a grand unity. Kenneth concludes that the continental spirit of Chinese mind can be expressed in terms of boldness, swiftness, magnanimity and holistic mutual involvement. Under this spirit, the main feature of Chinese Buddhism is inclusive. Since ancient times Chinese have tended to think holistically or inclusively. Confucians and Daoists tended to observe things as they are and, with increasing ontological penetration, to see differences. The wonder of the universe, for Confucianism and Daoism, is a harmony among diversities and even opposites. According to the Yin-Yang School, the Yijing (Book of changes), and the Daodejing (Way and virtual classic), the universe is a united whole. It is composed of pairs of opposites: yin and yang, positive and negative, male and female. The interaction of yin and yang produces all things and all kinds of movement. 2 Jan Yunhua says, The core of Chinese Buddhism surpass the boundary of religions, it represents the profundity of the Chinese Buddhism. 3 The central philosophy of Chinese Buddhism was established 1 K. Inada Kenneth, The Chinese Doctrinal Acceptance of Buddhism Journal of Chinese Philosophy, vol 24:1 (Honolulu, Hawaii, 1997): 7. 2 Hsueh-li Cheng, Chinese Philosophy: Buddhism. Encyclopedia of Philosophy, 2nd edition (Macmillan Reference USA, 2006). 3 Yunhua Jan, The Formation of the Central Philosophy of Chinese Buddhism. Taipei: 論中國佛教核心思想的建立. 中 2 24 IBC Seminar 2012

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