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1 Brain Development and Montessori Education 腦的發展與蒙特梭利教育 1

2 The Path of Development 腦發展的軌跡 From bottom to top( 下至上 ) From posterior to anterior( 後往前 ) (back to front)- Right to left( 右到左 ) Neurons-specialized nerve cells 神經元 - 是一種特殊類型的神經細胞 2

3 Motor cortex Somatosensory cortex Pars opercularis Sensory associative cortex Visual associative cortex Broca s area Visual cortex Primary Auditory cortex Wernicke s area 3

4 BRAIN STRUCTURES ( 腦的結構 ) Subcortical structures around the brainstem, regulate respiration, circulation, distribute neurotransmitters 皮層 ( 質 ) 下區域 - 腦幹附近的結構, 包括各種腦室與核, 丘腦, 下丘腦, 小腦, 及構成該腦幹部分主管呼吸循環傳導物質 ( 神經傳導素 ) 神經傳導素 : 是在神經元肌細胞或感受器間的化學突觸中充當信使作用的特殊的機體內生的分子神經傳導物質在神經肌肉和感覺系統的各個角落都有分布, 是動物的正常生理功能的重要一環 4

5 Cerebellum (behind brainstem)-coordinates fine motor sequences with sensory information, assists frontal lobes in complex planning 小腦 ( 位於腦幹後方 )- 協調肌肉動作肢體平衡, 輔助前額葉 ( 大腦 ) 規劃複雜事務 Cortex-85% of brain mass-processes learned information and behavior 皮質 - 腦部 85% 為皮質 - 處理學習資訊與行為 5

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7 Brain structure Brain structure 腦部結構腦部結構與功能請參考 ore%20the%20brain/brain1.htm 7

8 Brain neuron ( 腦神經元或神經細胞 ) Dendrites-input fibers 樹突 - 具有接受刺激並將衝動傳入細胞的功能 Axons-output fibers 軸突 - 又稱神經纖維, 功能是將刺激傳輸到不同的神經元, 肌肉和腺體腦神經元的定義與功能請見 : 60/ 8

9 Amygdala ( 杏仁核 ) An almond-shaped mass of gray matter located near the hippocampus (lower frontal areas of the temporal lobes) 又名杏仁體扁桃體, 灰色杏仁的形狀物質, 位於接近海馬體附近 ( 顳葉前下方 ) Part of the limbic system 為腦邊緣系統的一部分邊緣系統支持多種功能, 包括情緒行為動機長期記憶和嗅覺情感生活主要安置在邊緣系統, 它有一個很大的做用記憶的形成 9

10 Concerned with regulation and expression of emotion 與情緒的表達與調解有關 Sometimes called the fear button 有時稱為恐懼按鈕 In response to danger, signals hypothalamus to fight, flee, or freeze 對危險, 啟動海馬體反擊, 逃脫或停止動作 Adds positive or negative emotional content to memory of an experience for future use 增進正向或負面情緒記憶, 對於未來的經驗會有恐懼或興奮的預測 10

11 杏仁體的結構與功能參考網頁 1http://

12 Prime Times ( 黃金時間 ) Stimulation appears to increase size of some regions of cortex (amount of exposure may correlate to amount of growth) 刺激可以增加部分皮質的面積 ( 刺激皮質與成長成正相關 ) Increases number of dendrites in each neuron, thickens cortical cells 增加每一個神經元中樹突的數量會使皮質細胞增厚 12

13 Enriched environments seem to boost number of synapses formed 豐富的環境可以促進突觸數量的增加 13

14 Prime Times 2 ( 黃金時期 ) In young adults 15%of variability in brain metabolism linked to early experiences 年輕人的可變性 ( 與創意有關 ) 有 15% 來自於年幼經驗刺激腦部的新陳代謝 Critical periods do not exist for brain as a whole but for each of brain s systems 關鍵期不是以整個腦發展生存, 而是以每一個腦系統的方式運作 14

15 Brain development proceeds in waves with activity in different parts at different times 不同的時期腦以一波又一波不同的活動持續發展 15

16 PRIME TIME 3 1 MONTH-INTENSE ACTIVITY IN CORTICAL AND SUBCORTICAL REGIONS THAT CONTROL SENSORY- MOTOR FUNCTIONS 出生一個月 - 在皮質層區及皮質層下區域大量的活動控制感覺 - 動作的功能 2-3 MONTHS-SHARP RISE IN CORTICAL ACTIVITY, PRIME TIME FOR VISUAL AND AUDITORY STIMULATION 出生 2-3 個月 - 皮質區活動暴增, 為視覺與聽覺刺激的黃金時間 16

17 8 MONTHS-INCREASED METABOLIC ACTIVITY IN FRONTAL CORTEX (REGION REGULATES EMOTION, ITS EXPRESSION, THINKING, PLANNING)-STRANGER ANXIETY-MUCH ACTIVITY AT THIS SITE AS ATTACHMENT IS STRENGTHENED 出生八個月 - 額葉的新陳代謝活動增加 ( 調節情緒表達, 思考與規劃 )- 對陌生人的焦慮產生 - 依附關係增強 17

18 Chugani/Case Western Reserve Opportunities to use environmental exposure to change the anatomy of the brain to make it more efficient 個體在豐富的環境下, 可以促進腦的發展 Prime Times-exposure of brain to many kinds of stimulation according to predictable timetablesneurons create synapses more easily and efficiently 黃金時間 - 依據一定的時間表讓腦部接受刺激, 可以促進神經細胞有效率的創造突觸 18

19 Once a prime time passes, opportunities for the development of certain neural pathways substantially diminish 錯過了黃金時間, 就會讓一些神經路徑錯過發展的機會 19

20 Sensitive Periods 敏感期 Windows of opportunity for learning 學習機會之窗 Environmental stimulation effective in stimulating brain development 環境的刺激對於腦部發展的刺激最有效 But the ability to learn not equivalent over time-language development 學習的能力隨時間而事倍功半 - 如語言發展 20

21 Milestones of Development 發展里程碑 3 Months Eyes follow movement 眼睛聚焦物品的移動 Smiles in response 能以微笑回應 Lying on stomach, can raise head & shoulders ( 翻身趴著頭與肩膀能抬起來 ) Turns head, eyes look, in direction of sound 頭與眼睛能隨聲音而轉動 Coos & babbles 發出聲音 Stops crying when mother approaches 照顧者接近時會停止哭泣 Holds objects, pulls at blanket,clothes 手握物品, 拉衣服與小毯子 21

22 Plays with hands 玩自己的手 Imitates sounds 6 Months 6 個月模擬聲音 Babbling contains clear sounds 咿呀聲音中含有語音 Grasps & plays with small objects 能抓握與玩小的物品 Rolls from back to stomach 能自行翻身 22

23 On stomach lifts head,upper abdomen with hands 能自行趴著用手支撐起上半身 Adjusts position to see interesting object 為了能看到感興趣的東西會自行調整身體的姿勢 23

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25 9 Months 9 個月 Sits( 坐 ) Begins to crawl( 爬 ) Pulls to standing position 能用外物支撐自己的身體站起來 Uses thumb & index finger for grasping 能用拇指與食指抓物品 Understands no-no 了解不可以的意思 Looks for toy that she sees hidden 有能力找尋在視線內藏起來的物品 25

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27 12 Months Walks holding on to furniture (cruises) 用家具支撐著身體進行漫遊式的走動 Can mark on paper with crayon 用蠟筆在紙上亂點 Says 2 or more words 能說出一二個單詞 Recognizes objects by name 能說出物品的名稱 Understands simple commands 能理解簡單的指令 Imitates animal sounds 模擬動物的聲音 Shows emotions-joy,anger,sadness,fear 能表達情緒 - 愉快生氣傷心恐懼 27

28 Emotional Development 情緒的發展 In infancy the basic emotions emerge: 嬰兒期簡單的情緒出現 Joy-6 weeks 快樂 -6 週 Anger-3-4 months 生氣 -3-4 個月 Sadness- 5-7 months 傷心 -5-7 個月 Fear- 5-7 months 恐懼 -5-7 個月 Emotions are displays of affect or feelings 感覺影響情緒 28

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30 Emotions VS Behaviors 情緒 vs 行為 Erikson discusses the emotional tasks of childhood 艾瑞克森提及幼兒期情緒發展任務 Emotions are normal 情緒是正常的表現 Behaviors can reflect emotional states 行為反映情緒的狀態 Behaviors can be destructive 行為可以是破壞性的 30

31 Aggression is a behavior not an emotion 攻擊是一種行為而不是情緒 31

32 The 5 lessons 5 項可以學習的課程 Human development-interaction between nature and nurture-number of neurons before, at, and after birth affected by environmental conditions 人類的發展 - 先天與後天環境的相互影響 - 神經元的數量受到出生前剛出生與出生後的環境條件 Early care has decisive, lasting impact 早期照顧具有關鍵性與長久的影響 Neuroplasticity-brain s capacity for change 神經可塑性 ( 腦的可塑性 )- 腦具有改變的能力 32

33 Neuroplasticity and negative experience 腦的可塑性和負面行為 Prevention and early intervention 預防與早期介入 33

34 OTHER ISSUES 其他相關議題 ATTACHMENT-the significant role of emotions 依附關係 - 情緒扮演著關進角色» How it develops 依附關係的發展» Stimulation VS education 刺激與教育» Erikson & Trust 艾瑞克森與信任 Nutrition-food as sustenance 營養 - 食物是基本要素 feeding as an act of love 餵食是一種愛的行動表現 34

35 Nature VS NURTURE 先天與後天 35

36 OLD BELIEFS 傳統的信念 Brain fully formed at birth 腦在出生時已完成發展 Brain development based on genetic inheritance 腦的發展以遺傳為基礎 Early experiences have little value 早期經驗對未來沒有任何價值 Children s brains not as active as adults 幼兒的腦活動不如成人來的活躍 36

37 Intelligence fixed at birth 智力在出生時已成形 Brain development is linear 腦的發展是直線的 Attachment creates a favorable context for development 依附關係有利於發展 37

38 NEW BELIEFS 新的信念 75 to85% of a child s brain formed in the first 3 years of life (15% developed at birth) 出生時腦的發展約為 15%, 出生後的三年幼兒的腦部的發展約為 75-85% Early experiences are critical to synaptic connections 早期經驗對突觸的連結具關鍵性的影響 Early experiences directly affect how a child s brain is wired 早期經驗對直接影響腦的神經連結 38

39 Emotional development through attachment is critical to synaptic connections 透過依附關係發展情緒對於突觸的連結很重要 A child s brain is twice as active than an adults 幼兒的腦部發展的活躍性比成人至少快兩倍 39

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41 Early Brain Growth 腦早期的發展 Myelinization (myelination) 髓鞘 First Year-neural fibers become insulated, dendrite trees grow and expand 出生後的第一年 - 神經纖維開始隔絕獨立, 樹突開始成長與擴張 Neurons locate and are arranged by function 神經元以功能作為分區的原則 41

42 Brain surges (reflect massive production of synaptic connections) evident at certain ages 某些年齡階段的幼兒其腦部的發展會出現爆發式的成長 ( 反映出大量觸突連接的現象 ) 3-4months-voluntary reaching 3-4 個月的嬰兒 - 自發式伸手接觸物品的動作 8 months-crawling, searching 八個月大的嬰兒 - 爬探索 12 months-walking 12 個月大的學步兒 - 走路 42

43 Key Points 重點 Movement develops as a result of biology (nature) and experience (nurture) (6weeks gestation) 動作的發展是生物學 ( 天生 ) 與經驗 ( 後天 ) 相互影響的結果 ( 懷孕 6 週 ) More neural connections and experience foster more coordination and stronger muscles 更多神經連結與經驗可以培養強健的肌肉與更靈活的動作協調 43

44 Increased myelinization influences development of fine motor skills 促進髓鞘化可以影響精細動作技能的發展 What forms brain circuitry early in life is experience (essential), 經驗促進早期髓鞘化對於腦部線路系統的發展很重要 44

45 Memory 記憶 We are what we remember! 記憶影響我們 45

46 Types of Memory 記憶的類型 Retrieval- Recognition and Recall 檢索 - 辨識與回憶 Working memory- short-term 工作記憶 - 短暫的記憶 Generic memory-familiar routines to guide behaviors 一般性的記憶 - 熟悉例行程序, 以指引行為表現 46

47 Episodic memory-long-term for specific experiences, linked to time & place 情節式記憶 - 對於特殊經驗的長期記憶, 與時間及地點有關 Autobiographical memory- the story of you 自傳式記憶 - 指的是對於個人相關的過去經驗或事件的記憶它屬於情節式記憶 (episodic memory), 但包含了更多自我經驗的涉入 47

48 INFLUENCES ON MEMORY 記憶的影響 Uniqueness of the event 事件的獨特性 A person s active participation 個體的積極參與 Language-repetition of stories 語文 - 故事的重複性 Conversations with significant adults 與重要成人的會話 Parental support of autonomy 家長支持幼兒的自主發展 48

49 Monkey See, Monkey Do 俚語有樣學樣 49

50 Mirror Neurons 鏡像神經元 Early infant imitation-neurons fire when the human acts and when the human observes the same action performed by another 嬰兒的模仿 - 個體在執行某個行為以及觀察其他個體執行同一行為時都會發出衝動的神經元 -Sticking out tongue 吐舌頭 The brain s attempt to form emotional connections 腦嘗試形成情緒的連結 Shows connection between infant actions and mental states 顯示出嬰兒的行動與心理的連結 50

51 Mirror Neurons 鏡像神經元 Discovered in observing monkeys 從觀察猴子的行為發現此現象 Discharge of electrical impulses when performing and watching others perform 當表現行為或看到別人的行為表現時腦會釋放電脈衝 Similar reaction in humans 人類出現類似的行為 The brain is primed for imitation 腦會釋放出模仿的訊號 51

52 Infants imitate as a natural part of learning 嬰兒的學習策略之一是模仿 Negative effect of emotional contagion 情緒感染的負面效果註 :emotional contagion: 看見別人的情緒表現時, 不禁也產生同樣的情緒反應, 如表情聲音姿勢動作等此理論者認為情緒表現是由模仿學習而來, 可以追溯學習的來源, 即是自幼經常模仿某人的情緒表現者, 待到自己主動有情緒作用時, 會出現同樣的表現 52

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54 Self Awareness 自覺 Develops between18-24 months 個月大時開始發展 The rouge Test 自我知覺的測驗 ua44 Major changes 重要的改變 Language=beginnings of symbolic thought 語言 - 開始象徵式的思考 54

55 Emerging self-control, limited restraint 開始出現自我 - 控制, 但是仍然缺乏自我克制的能力 Emerging demands for independence 開始出現要求獨立的行為 Behavior not fully intentional as child cannot predict consequences 無法預測行為的結果, 因此隨意無意圖的行為較多 55

56 Using What We Know 運用我們已知的訊息 Following the Child 跟著孩子走 Respecting the power of modeling 重視模仿的力量 Encouraging healthy attachments 鼓勵健康的依附關係 56

57 Respecting Emotional Development 重視情緒的發展 The issue of temperament 天生氣質的議題 Allowing the expression of feelings 容許表達感受 ( 心情 ) Learning through motor development and the 5 senses 透過動作發展與 5 種感覺學習 57

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59 MONTESSORI Four Planes of Development 四個階段的發展 Extend from birth to 24 in 6 year periods 自出生至 24 歲, 每一個階段以六歲為區分 Thrust of all action is toward development 以發展為行動的意圖 Development does not proceed in a linear direction nor is it constant 發展不是朝直線方向的發展, 也不是持續性的發展 59

60 Human development is holistic-montessori considers all aspects of development and all phases of developing life 人類的發展是整體性的 - 蒙特梭利認為發展是全方位全面性與生命的所有階段 60

61 The 4 Planes Infancy- Zero to three-the spiritual embryo, the unconscious creator, the period of the development of sensory powers, movement, and language 嬰幼兒期 -0-3 歲 - 精神胚胎, 潛意識的創造者, 感官動作及語言力量的發展期 61

62 Three to six-conscious mastery of the environment as a means to development, perfection through activity of those powers already formed, play equals work, embryonic period of character formation 3-6 歲 - 以有意識的操作環境作為發展的工具, 透過活動精煉已出現的能力, 玩就是工作, 品格的建構期 62

63 The 4 Planes part2 CHILDHOOD- six to twelve-calm phase of uniform growth 兒童期歲 - 穩健且均衡的發展期 Child hungry for culture 飢渴的吸收文化 Period of Cosmic Education 宇宙教育期 63

64 Developing reason and abstract thought 推理與抽象思考的能力 Power of imagination 想像力 Developing physical strength and good health 體力與健康的發展 64

65 The 4 Planes part3 Adolescence- 12 to 18- from the child in the family to the adult in society 青春期歲 - 從家庭中的兒童轉成社會中的成人 Maturity- 18 to 24- the beginning of the personal life mission 壯年期 ( 成熟期 ) 歲 - 開始實踐個體人生的使命 65

Chapter 8

Chapter 8 Consciousness, The Brain and Behavior 識行 I. States of Consciousness 識狀 (I) Electroencephalogram The electroencephalogram provides one means of defining the states of consciousness. 了識狀 Electric