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1 Feb. 2007, Volume 4, No.2 (Serial No.27) US-China Education Review, ISSN , USA * self cultural dichotomies/individualism/collectivism cultural syndromes [1-3] [4] Markus Kitayama [5] / independent/interdependent self construals / [6] / [7] / * NSC H PAE NSC H PAE 1

2 meta-theoretical analysis/ 1 [8,9] 2 [10,11] Markus Kitayama [12] What is a person? / independent/interdependent views of human nature [12](70) ways of being [12](71) self ways [12](71) [12](71) self views Markus Kitayama [12] [6,7] / culture-specific idea of the self bicultural self Bakan [13] Geertz [14] [14](48) Markus Kitayama [5] [4] true self [6] [6](23) self-determination mastery uniqueness [15] relational being [15](233) [16,17] 1 2

3 2 3 4 [5] [4] [6] [6](18) [18] [19] [20] composite self uniquenessrelatedness [4] bicultural self [19] [6,19] Markus Kitayama [5] [5](225) [21] psychometric approach [19] 3

4 [22,23] / [24] [3] mutually constitutive [25] / [7] [4] [6] // / [6] Markus Kitayama [5] self-other relation / [20] self-concept basic nature unique qualitiestypical behavior [26] self-knowledge Sedikedes Brewer [27] individual self relational self collective self who I am Twenty Statement Test TST I am 4

5 I am a member of a happy family family self Markus Kitayama [12] incremental value Triandis [3,28] [29,30] Oyserman Coon Kemmelmeier [24] / [6] Markus Kitayama [5] [20] Triandis [3,28] [29,30] Oyserman Coon Kemmelmeier [24] [6] Markus Kitayama [5] [20] / [4-6] 5

6 Self-other relation Self-group relation 6

7 Self-society relation, including self-environment relation consistencyintegration 7

8 Rogers [31] On Becoming A Person the true self [32] coherent and consistent [33] [34] [33] 烺 [10] 1.3 [16,17] [35] [36] [37] [38] [19] [20] [6,20] [39] 8

9 N=760 % / ~

10 [21] [40] [41] Markus Kitayama [5] Triandis [3] 1 3 Gudykunst [42] Markus Kitayama [5] 12 4 [43] Likert 1=6= 2 Likert 1= 7= 4 Likert 1= 5= exploratory factor analysis Cronbach α 10

11 principal-component method Kaiser promax 3 6 oblique factor eigen value 1 independence 19.38% 2self-determination 10.49% 3competition 6.80%4consistency 4.84% 41.16% p< Cronbach α=

12 Cronbach α= Cronbach α= Cronbach α=

13 1contextual self 20.08% 2interpersonal relatedness 7.13% 3self-cultivation 4.29%4social sensitivity 3.52% 35.02% eigen value p< Cronbach α= Cronbach α=

14 Cronbach α= Cronbach α=.703 [21] 2 9 [40]

15 .77~.89.75~.89.60~.82.43~.74 CFA GFI.99 CFI independence 2self-determination 3competition 4consistency contextual self 2interpersonal relatedness 3self-cultivation 4social sensitivity Cronbach α Cronbach α Cronbach α convergent and divergent validity 10 / 15

16 10 / *** *** *** *** -.23 ***.28 *** -.15 ***.19 *** ***.13 **.29 *** *.27 *** *** -.22 ***.32 *** -.09 *.49 *** -.17 ***.30 *** -.09 *.28 *** -.13 **.30 *** -.19 ***.33 *** *p<.05 **p<.01 ***p< [42] 2 [41] incremental effect Type I error Gudykurst [42] 24% β=.45 p<.001 4% β=.20 p<.001f= p<.001 Gudykurst [42] 36% β=.60 p< β=.03 ns. F= p<.001 t Paired t *** *** *** *** *** ***p<

17 1. William James [44] I-selfMe-self James self-cognition self-process Markus Kitayama [5] / / Tu [15] 烺 [10] Jen/ Sedikides Brewer [27] / / individual self relational self collective self 2 17

18 烺 [10] Ptolemian Oyserman [24] valuing personal independence freedom, self-sufficiency, and control over one s life self-determination Oyserman [24] goals striving for one s own goals, desires, and achievements 4 Oyserman [24] compete personal competition and winning 5 Markus Kitayama [5] Suh [33] consistency 烺 [10] Suh [33] Oyserman [24] context self changes according to context or situation [34] 7 Oyserman [24] duty related duties and sacrifices being a group member entails considering close others as integral part of the self 18

19 [10] 8 [16,17] [35] Markus Kitayama [5] Oyserman [24] Kim [27] 9 [6] [15] harmony [24] 2. [45] [1,30] [46] [18] [47] Markus Kitayama [5] [41,48] [49] / / Pearson % p< canonical correlation 12 19

20 .76 p< % 24% ***.537 ***.481 *** η 1 η 2 η χ 1 χ 2 χ ***p<.001 [10] [33] 20

21 [35] [50] primary control [41] [51] [18, 52,53] [1] Hofstede, G. Culture s Consequences: International Differences in Work-related Values. Newbury Park, CA: Sage, [2] Kim, U. Individualism and Collectivism: Conceptual Clarification and Elaboration // U. Kim, H. C. Triandis, C. Kagitçibasi, S. C. Choi & G. Yoon, Eds. Individualism and Collectivism: Theory, Method, and Application. London: Sage, 1994: [3] Triandis, H. C. Individualism and Collectivism. Boulder, CO: Westview Press, [4] Yang, K. S. Beyond Maslow s Culture-bound, Linear Theory: A Preliminary Statement of the Double-Y Model of Basic 21

22 Human Needs // V. Murphy-Berman & J. Berman, Eds. Nebraska Symposium on Motivation, Vol. 49: Cross-cultural Differences in Perspectives on the Self. Lincoln, NE: University of Nebraska Press, 2003: [5] Markus, H. R., & Kitayama, S. Culture and the Self: Implication for Cognition, Emotion, and Motivation. Psychological Review, 1991 (98): [6]. [J] [7] Yang, K. S. Chinese Social Orientation: An Integrative Analysis // T. Y. Lin, W. S. Tseng & E. K. Yeh, Eds. Chinese Societies and Mental Health. Hong Kong: Oxford University Press, 1995: [8] Marsella, A. J., DeVos, G., & Hsu, F. L. K. Culture and Self: Asian and Western Perspectives. New York: Tavistock Publications, [9] Shweder, R. A. Thinking through Cultures: Expeditions in Cultural Psychology. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, [10] Hsu, F. L. K. The Self in Cross-cultural Perspective // A. J. Marsella, G. DeVos & F. L. K. Hsu, Eds. Culture and Self: Asian and Western Perspectives. New York: Tavistock Publications, 1985: [11] Sampson, E. E. The Challenge of Social Change for Psychology: Globalization and Psychology s Theory of the Person. American Psychologist, 1989 (44): [12] Markus, H. R., & Kitayama, S. The Cultural Psychology of Personality. Journal of Cross-Cultural Psychology, 1998 (29): [13] Bakan, D. The Duality of Human Existence. Boston: Beacon Press, [14] Geertz, C. On the Nature of Anthropological Understanding. American Scientist, 1975 (63): [15] Tu, W. M. Selfhood and Otherness in Confucian Thought // A. J. Marsella, G. DeVos, & F. L. K. Hsu, Eds. Culture and Self: Asian and Western Perspectives. New York: Tavistock, [16]. [C]// a [17]. [C]// b [18] Yang, K. S. Psychological Transformation of the Chinese People as a Result of Societal Modernization // M. H. Bond, Ed. The Handbook of Chinese Psychology. New York: Oxford University Press, 1996: [19] Lu, L. & Yang, K. S. The Emergence and Composition of the Traditional-modern Bicultural Self of People in Contemporary Taiwanese Societies. Asian Journal of Social Psychology, 2006 (9): [20]. [J] [21]. [J] [22] Fiske, A. P. Using Individualism and Collectivism to Compare CulturA Critique of the Validity and Measurement of the Constructs: Comment on Oysermqn et al. (2002). Psychological Bulletin, 2002 (128): [23] Miller, J. G.. Bringing Culture to Basic Psychological TheorBeyond Individualism and Collectivism: Comment on Oysermqn et al. (2002). Psychological Bulletin, 2002 (128): [24] Oyserman, D., Coon, H. M., & Kemmelmeier, M. Rethinking Individualism and Collectivism: Evaluation of Theoretical Assumptions and Meta-analysis. Psychological Bulletin, 2002 (128): [25] Kitayama, S. Culture and Basic Psychological Processes Toward a System View of Culture: Comment on Oyserman et al.(2002). Psychological Bulletin, 2002 (128): [26] Weiten, W., & Lloyd, M. A. Psychology Applied to Modern Life: Adjustment in the 21st Century. 7 th ed. Belmont, CA: Thomson, 2003: 500. [27] Sedikides, C., & Brewer, M. B. Individual Self, Relational Self, Collective Self. Philadelphia, PA: Psychology Press, [28] Triandis, H. C., & Gelfand, M. J. Converging Measurement of Horizontal and Vertical Individualism and Collectivism. 22

23 Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 1998 (74): [29] Triandis, H. C., Leung, K., Villareal, M. J., & Clack, F. L. Allocentric versus Idiocentric Tendencies: Convergent and Discriminant Validation. Journal of Research in Personality, 1985 (19): [30] Triandis, H. C. Cross-cultural Studies of Individualism and Collectivism // J. Berman, Ed. Nebraska Symposium on Motivation, Cross-cultural Perspectives. Lincoln, NE: University of Nebraska Press, 1990, 37: [31] Rogers, C. R. On Becoming a Person: A Therapist s View of Psychotherapy. Boston: Houghton Mifflin, [32] Coan, R. W. Artist, Sage or Saint: A Survey of Views on What is Variously Called Mental Health, Normality, Maturity, Self-actualization and Human Fulfillment. New York: Columbia University Press, [33] Suh, E. M. Self, the Hyphen between Culture and Subjective Well-being // E. Diener & E. M. Suh, Eds. Culture and Subjective Well-being. Cambridge, MA: The MIT Press, 2000: [34] Nisbett, R. E., Peng, K. P., Choi, I., & Norenzayan, A. Culture and Systems of Thought: Holistic versus Analytic Cognition. Psychological Review, 2001 (108): [35]. [J] [36] Ho, D. Y. F. Selfhood and Identity in Confucianism, Taoism, Buddhism, and Hinduism: Contrasts with the West. Journal for the Theory of Social Behaviour, 1995 (25): [37] Maslow, A. H. The Farther Reaches of Human Nature. New York: Viking, [38] Hwang, K. K. Morality: East and West // N. J. Smelser & P. B. Baltes, Eds. International Encyclopedia of the Social and Behavioral Sciences. Oxford: Pergamon, 2001: [39]. [C]// [40]. 2/4 [R] H PAE [41] Lu, L., & Gilmour, R. Culture, Self and Ways to Achieve SWB: A Cross-cultural Analysis. Journal of Psychology in Chinese Societies, 2004 (5): [42] Gudykunst, W.B., Matsumoto, Y., Ting-Toomey, S., Nishida, T., Kim, K., & Heyman, S. Measuring Self Construals across Cultures. Paper presented at the annual meeting of the International Communication Association, Sydney, Australia, July, [43]. [D] [44] James, W. Psychology: The Briefer Course. New York: Holt, Rinehart & Winston, [45] Lawler, J. Collectivity and Individuality in Soviet Educational Theory. Contemporary Educational Psychology, 1980 (5): [46] Bendix, R. Tradition and Modernity Reconsidered. Comparative Study in Society and History, 1967 (9): [47]. [J] [48] Lu, L., Gilmour, R., Kao, S. F., Wong, T. H., Hu, C. H., Chern, J. G., Huang, S. W., & Shih, J. B. Two Ways to Achieve Happiness: When the East Meets the West. Personality and Individual Differences, 2001 (30): [49] Lu, L., & Kao, S. F. Traditional and Modern Characteristics across the Generations: Similarities and Discrepancies. Journal of Social Psychology, 2002 (142): [50] Tu, W. M. Embodying the Universe: A Note on Confucian Self-actualization // R. T. Ames, W. Dissanayake & T. P. Kasulis, Eds. Self as Person in Asian Theory and Practice. Albany, NY: State University of New York Press, 1994: [51] Rosenthal, R., Blanck, P. D., & Vannicelli, M. Speaking to and About Patients: Predicting Therapists Tone of Voice. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 1984 (52): [52] Brindley, T. A. Socio-psychological Values in the Republic of China (I). Asian Thought and Society, 1989, XIV (41-42): [53] Brindley, T. A. Socio-psychological Values in the Republic of China (II). Asian Thought and Society, 1990, XIV (43):

24 Individual- and Social-oriented Self Views: Conceptual Analysis and Empirical Assessment LU Luo Abstract: A cultural analysis of diverse conceptualization of the self was attempted. Two comprehensive conceptual frameworks pertaining to the individual-oriented and social-oriented self views were produced and used as the basis for subsequent scale development. The item pools were then written and revised. Large scale data collection (N=839) from college students and community adults were conducted. Exploratory factor analysis revealed that both the individual-oriented and social-oriented self views were composed of four meaningful psychological factors. Basing upon these results, the final scale construction was accomplished, producing a 41-item Individual-oriented Self Views Scale and a 44-item Social-oriented Self Views Scale. Lastly, the psychometric properties of these newly constructed self scales were examined, demonstrating good reliability, acceptable convergent and divergent validity. Key words: individual-oriented self views; social-oriented self views; culture & self; conceptual analysis; empirical assessment 24

西方心理輔導理論與實踐的臺灣本土化研究

西方心理輔導理論與實踐的臺灣本土化研究 2005.11.1812.17 20 80 19982004 2004 Triandis, 1995 Hsu, 1985 Yang, 1992 Ho, 1993; Hwang, 1997 Yeh,1997;, 1992 1996 2002 Moghaddam,1993; Sinha & Tripathi,1994 Yang, 1981; Yang, 1988 1 1996 2003 2003 2000