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1 行政院及所屬各機關出國報告 ( 出國類別 : 進修 ) ASC-TRT 參加新加坡民航學院機場工程 第二階段訓練班報告書 服務機關 : 行政院飛航安全委員會出國人職稱 : 工程師姓名 : 林沛達出國地區 : 新加坡出國期間 : 民國九十一年九月二十三日至十月十八日報告日期 : 民國九十二年一月十七日 1

2 行政院及所屬各機關出國報告提要 系統識別號 C 出國報告名稱 : 參加新加坡民航學院機場工程第二階段訓練班報告書 頁數 :57 頁含附件 : 否 出國計畫主辦機關 : 行政院飛航安全委員會聯絡人 : 黃佩蒂電話 :(02) 分機 154 出國人員姓名 : 林沛達服務機關 : 行政院飛航安全委員會職稱 : 工程師電話 :(02) 出國類別 : 1 考察 2 進修 3 研究 4 實習 5 其他 出國期間 : 民國九十一年九月二十三日至十月十八日出國地區 : 新加坡 報告日期 : 民國九十一年一月十七日 分類號 / 目 關鍵詞 : 飛航安全 機場工程 機場設計 機場管理 內容摘要 : 本次課程是由新加坡民航學院及新加坡南洋理工學院共同開辦, 為全球少數為國際民航組織所承認之訓練, 該課程內容結合學術面 實務面及全球規範訂定者 此行主要的目的是 : ( 一 ) 了解機場工程之輪廓,( 二 ) 培養機場工程施工之種子學員,( 三 ) 提昇國內機場安全調查之知識與技巧 該課程提供完整之技術性知識, 以評估機場發展需求計畫 機場發展設計 機場設施 執行相關工程及維護機場設施等 該階段屬於機場工程之第二階段, 所介紹之課程涵蓋航機操作區幾何設計 場址準備 大地工程 土壤穩定 舖面設計及施工 瀝青混凝土理論及實務 排水系統設計 機場機械及電子系統 預鑄工法 航廈施工及管理等以達成學員通盤了解機場施工相關學識 新加坡民航學院不僅在專業師資之提供 課程安排, 具有完整規劃, 對於學員學習成效利用多種形式之考試, 了解其吸收能力, 相對於其他訓練機構實謂嚴謹, 所有學員勢必獲益良多, 本次課程僅完成機場施工部份, 該課程之第三階段尚有機場設施及機場工程維護部份 2

3 尚未完成, 建議若有機會仍應參與完成該項訓練, 或遴聘相關教師至本國授課 本文電子檔已上傳至出國報告資訊網行政院及所屬各機關出國報告審核表 出國報告名稱 : 參加新加坡民航學院機場工程第二階段訓練班報告書出國計畫主辦機關名稱 : 行政院飛航安全委員會 出國人員姓名 : 林沛達服務機關 : 行政院飛航安全委員會職稱 : 工程師 出國計畫主辦機關審核意見 : 1. 依限繳交出報告 2. 格式完整 3. 內容充實完備 4. 建議具參考價值 5. 送本機關參考或研辦 6. 送上級機關參考 7. 退回補正, 原因 : (1) 不符原核定出國計畫 (2) 以外文撰寫或僅以所蒐集外文資料為內容 (3) 內容空洞簡略 (4) 未依行政院所屬各機關出國報告規格辦理 (5) 未於資訊網登錄提要資料及傳送出國報告電子檔 8. 其他處理意見 : 層轉機關審核意見 : 同意主辦機關審核意見 全部 部份 ( 填寫審核意見編號 ) 退回補正, 原因 : ( 填寫審核意見編號 ) 其他處理意見 : 3

4 目錄 1. 行程 課程安排 心得 航機操作區幾何設計 大地工程 機場設施電路 機場空調及通風系統 行李處理系統 (Baggage Handling System) 空橋設計 : 航機停泊引導系統 ADGS(Aircraft Docking Guidance System) 機場排水設計 瀝青混凝土之理論及實務 柔性舖面設計 柔性舖面施工 剛性舖面設計 剛性舖面施工 建議

5 1. 行程 本次課程是由新加坡民航學院及新加坡南洋理工學院共同開辦, 為全球少數為國際民航組織所承認之訓練, 該課程內容結合學術面 實務面及全球規範訂定者 此行主要的目的是 :( 一 ) 了解機場工程之輪廓,( 二 ) 培養機場工程施工之種子學員,( 三 ) 提昇國內機場安全調查之知識與技巧 按預定的時間於九月二十三日搭國籍航空公司自台北出發, 當天中午即抵達新加坡, 於先行了解住宿 上課地點與交通等基本問題後, 第二天即開始上課 上課時間由九月二十四日至十月十八日, 共四週時間 十月十八日為考試日, 該課程另提供獲取學位學員於十月二十一日返校加考申論題 學員來自於世界各地, 包括斐濟 香港 新加坡 韓國 安曼 辛巴威等 共 10 人 新加坡民航學院位於新加坡漳宜機場西北方, 方便大多數自於世界參與的 學員來, 詳細位置如地圖 1 紅色三角形所示 5

6 圖 1 漳宜國際機場與上課地點新加坡民航學院相關位置地圖 2. 課程安排 一 課程簡述 : 該課程提供完整之技術性知識, 以評估機場發展需求計畫 機場發展設計 機場設施 執行相關工程及維護機場設施等 該階段屬於機場工程之第二階段, 所介紹之課程涵蓋航機操作區幾何設計 場址準備 大地工程 土壤穩定 舖面設計及施工 瀝青混凝土理論及實務 排水系統設計 機場機械及電子系統 預鑄工法 航廈施工及管理等以達成學員通盤了解機場施工相關學識 二 課程表 : 6

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11 三 授課教師 : 講師姓名 Prof Henry Fan Assoc Prof Robert Tiong Assoc Pro Wong Wai Fan Assoc Prof Tan Teng Hooi Assoc Prof Lam Soi Hoi Assoc Prof Lum Kit Meng Assoc Pro Wong Yiik Diew Mr Bawajee Rajaram 單位職稱 Professor & Director Center for Transportation Studies School of Civil and Structural Engineering Nanyang Technological University Singapore School of Civil and Structural Engineering Nanyang Technological University School of Civil and Structural Engineering Nanyang Technological University School of Civil and Structural Engineering Nanyang Technological University School of Civil and Structural Engineering Nanyang Technological University School of Civil and Structural Engineering Nanyang Technological University School of Civil and Structural Engineering Nanyang Technological University Manager (Civil Engineering) SPECS Consultants Pte. Ltd. Mr Kang Yew Lee Mr Goh Wei Fen Mr Bernard Chan Mrs Mary Tan Mr Loh Seow Yick Mr Hamsa Ramli Cargo Supervisor (Training) SATS Airport Services Pte Ltd Asst. Director (Ground Operations) Airport Management Division Asst. Director (Estate Management) Airport Management Division Chief Apron Control/Management Services Airport Management Division Asst. Airport Manager Airport Management Division Instructor Singapore Aviation Academy 11

12 Mr Lo Weng Kee Executive Engineer (Navaids) Operations Division Mr Francis Anthony Operations Commander (Fire Safety) Airport Emergency Division Mr Lim Lai Choon Senior Airport Emergency Officer Airport Emergency Division Mr Lee Wei Kwong Senior Engineer (Terminal 1) Engineering Division Mr Au Wing Tak Executive Engineer (Civil) Engineering Division Mr Patrick Soh Eng Seng Executive Engineer (Electrical) Engineering Division Mr Ng Hoe Seng Senior Technical Officer (Mechanical) Engineering Division Ms Koh Miaw Ling Executive Quantity Surveyor Engineering Division Mr Chan Kim Hove Engineer (Electrical) Engineering Division Mr Koh Ming Sue Engineer (Electrical) Engineering Division Ms Joyce Wee Li Ying Senior Technical Officer Engineering Division Mr Lau Pui Kee Senior Technical Officer (Mechanical) Engineering Division Mr Mustapha Nasar Manager (Terminal Operations) Airport Management Division Mdm Choong Tio Chieu Yoke Manager (Horticulture) Airport Management Division 12

13 3. 心得 3.1 航機操作區幾何設計 ( 一 ) 機場分類 :Code Element I:aircraft reference field length 由製造商提供 ;Code Element II:Wing Span,Outer main Gear wheel Span ( 二 ) 跑道幾何設計 : 結構舖面 (structural pavement) 道肩(shoulder) 跑道地帶 (Runway Strip) 及跑道端安全地帶 (Runway End Safety Area), 需考量每一項之長及寬 縱橫剖面 縱剖面變化率 跑道端安全區 ( 三 ) 主跑道長度 : 訂定主跑道長度需考量下列因素, 包含航機操作性能 航機起降重量 機場高程 機場參考溫度 最高及最低之高程 ( 沿跑道中心線 ), 另需考量風 溼度 需求最長跑道航機 駕駛員技術 道面狀況及航空公司程序等因素能被計算入內 影響跑道長度需求有安全法規 機場環境 航機起降重量等因素 美國 FAA 以航機性能 起降重量 高程及參考溫度發展出圖表錄於 FAA A/C150/5325/4A,Runway Length Requirement for Airport Design. 決定步驟分為 a. 決定起飛跑道長度 : 參考最大起飛重量 機場高程 溫度, 每尺高程差增加 10 尺長標準 13

14 定出 ;b. 決定起飛跑道長度 : 參考航機及引擎型式 最大落地重量 高程, 增加濕滑跑道情況 7% 選擇起飛或落地較長跑道為其跑道長度 當考量單引擎失效之繼續起飛及放棄起飛, 需設置停止區及清除區 ( 四 ) 作業詞彙 : 1.V1:Decision Speed 駕駛員決定繼續起飛或停止之速度, 2.VR:Rotation Speed 駕駛員開始拉機頭的速度, 3.Vlof:Lift-off Speed 航機已完全離開地面的空速, 4.V2:Take-off Safety Speed 航機高於 35 呎, 但單發動機失效, 維持爬升梯度, 所需之最小速度, 5. 起飛距離 :Take-off Distance 航機高度為 35 呎, 但單發動機失效距跑道頭之距離 ; 航機高度為 35 呎, 但全發動機操作時距跑道頭之 115% 距離 6. 起飛長 :Take-off Run 跑道實際長度單發動機失效時 0.5 Lift-Off Distance +0.5 Take-off distance 全發動機操作時 115% Lift-Off Distance +0.5 Distance to 35 - Lift-Off Distance 14

15 7. 加速停止距離 :Acceleration-Stop Distance Accelerate to V1+Decelerate to Stop 8. 停止區 :Stopway 為航機達 V1 放棄起飛而超出之實際跑道長度 Acceleration-Stop Distance - Take-off Run 9. 清除區 :Clearway Take-off Distance - Take-off Run ( 五 ) 安全法規包含降落 起飛 爬升階段之限制 : 1. 降落 : 提供航機通過跑道頭時高 50 英呎提供航機停止距離為機場規劃落地距離 /0.6 Landing dist = Distend to stop /0.6 (1) 2. 起飛 : (i) 單發動機失效 (a) 繼續起飛 T/O distance = Distance to 35ft height(2) (b) 放棄起飛 Field length = Accelerate-Stop Dist (3) (ii) 正常起飛 15

16 T/O distance = 1.15 Distance to 35ft height (4) *Field length = Max (1)(2)(3)(4) 並非所有的 T/O distance 均為 Full strength pavement (FSP) 3. 清除區 (Clear Way, CLW): 為單發動機失效時之一虛擬面 (1)>150m 寬 (2) 從 end runway upward 1.25% slope (3) 不可有障礙物穿越 4. 停止區 (Stop Way STW): 為放棄起飛之一實面 (1)>= 跑道寬 (2) 避免航機結構受損 (3) 為放棄起飛航機滾行所需 ( 六 ) 引擎失效與鋪面關係 (i) 繼續起飛 A. Piston Engine Full Strength Pavement = Take off Distance B. Turbine Engine FSP = TAKE OFF Dist. CLW CLW = 0.5 (Take off Dist Liftoff Dist) (ii) 放棄起飛 16

17 A. Piston Engine FSP = Accelerate Stop Dist B. Turbine Engine FSP = Take off run Take off run = 0.5 take off distance + Lift off distance STW = (Accelerate Stop Dist) (Take off Run) ( 七 ) 正常起飛狀況 : CLW = 0.5 take off distance 1.15 Lift off distance FSP = Take Off Dist.- CLW V1: Decision speed Vb: balance Field velocity 當 V1=Vb Take off distance = Accelerate stop dist 當 V1<Vb Take off run = accelerate stop dist V1>Vb shorter FSP but longer stop way ( 八 )Climb-limited Weight: 2 nd segment(steepest) climb-limited weight Take/off Weight reduced to obstacle-limited weight Net Flight Path higher obstacle 35ft Actual Flight Path = Net Flight Path + k% 17

18 k = 1% for 4- engine A/C ( 九 ) 起飛長度要求 : 若 V1 讓單發動機失效時, Take-off Distance = Acceleration-Stop Distance, 該距離為 Balance Field Length 檢查跑道實際長度需符合大於 Balance Field Length 及大於 115 % 全發動機操作之 Take-off distance ( 十 ) 降落長度要求 : 降落長度需符合大於起飛長度要求, 降落長度要求為最小跑道長度需求 ( 十一 ) 航機參考場長度 :Aero plane Reference Field Length 航機載最大起飛重量 海平面 標準大氣壓 零跑道坡度下之最小跑道長度需求 (Minimum field length requirement), 獲得航機參考場長度由 FAA 查表或由 ICAO Aerodrome Design Manual-Part1 附錄一或由製造商提供 ( 十二 ) 跑道實際長度 :Runway actual length RAL=ARFL*CE*Ct*CS CE=1+(0.07E)/300 Ct=1+0.01* T-( E) CS=1+0.1S 18

19 S=effective runway slope ( 十三 ) 跑道數及跑道方位 : 需滿足 ICAO 95% 之利用率 ( 十四 ) 平行跑道間距 : 考量使用 VFR 或 IFR 當平行非儀器跑道可同時使用時, 依據 ICAO Code number1&2,3,4, 最小平行跑道間距應分別為 210,150,120 公尺 ; 當平行非儀器跑道可同時使用時, 依據 ICAO Annex14 Doc4444 Doc8168, 最小平行跑道間距應分別為 1035 公尺 for independent parallel approach ; 915 公尺 for dependent parallel approach ; 760 公尺 for independent parallel departure ; 760 公尺 for segregated parallel departure ( 十五 ) 航機重量 : 航機重 = 空重 OWE+ 乘客貨物重 PL+ 燃油重 Fuel Fuel=Trip Fuel+Reserve Fuel 最大起飛重量 MTOW 最大降落重量 MLW 空重 OWE(Operating weight empty)crew and equipment 零油重 ZFW crew equipment and payload ( 十六 ) 考量機場環境 :(Airport Environment) 1. 跑道梯度 19

20 最大允許梯度 1-2% 平均均勻梯度 (Average uniform grad)=elevation of runway ends/runway length 有效跑道梯度 =elevation of highest and lowest difference /Runway length 2. 表面溫度 : 表面溫度增加 1 跑道長度增加 0.7~1.3% 3. 高度 : 高度增加 1000ft 跑道長度增加 7% 4. 風 : 尾風增加跑道長度增加 5. 跑道表面情況 : 溼跑道須較長跑道積水效應為 Standing water(hydroplaning)is function of Vp = 9P 0.5 允許水深小於 10mm 橫斷溝 :5mm 寬, 5mm 深, 25mm 間距 6. 道肩 : 需容忍噴流 20

21 7. 跑道地帶 : 需設置 8. 跑道端安全地帶 : 寬大於 2 倍跑道寬為儀器跑道 undershooting / over running runway 9. 噴流板 : 放置於跑道尾端避免起飛噴流傷到鋪面 ( 十七 ) 橫剖面梯度 : 1.1%< 橫剖面梯度 <1.5% 為排水功能 2. 在跑道地帶前 3m 梯度可大於 5% ( 十八 ) 縱剖面梯度變化 : X%= 0.01 y%= z%= D = n (1x1+1y1+1y1+1z1) or 45m which ever is greater n = 5000m-Code 1, m-Code m-Code4 D = 375m 21

22 ( 十九 ) 視野要求 : CDE code 須於 3m 高可見至少 0.5 倍長跑道 ( 二十 ) 滑行道 : 滑行道為提供機場間之連結, a. A/C stand taxi lane- 機坪間的滑行道提供至停機位的連結 b. Apron taxiway- 提供穿越機坪的連結 c. Rapid exit taxiway- 連結跑道之高速滑行道 ( 二十一 ) 滑行道設計原則 : (a) 提供每一跑道一平行滑行道 (b) 直接提供滑行道 ( 減少滑行距離 <5km) (c) 提供至跑道頭旁流及其他 (d) 最少穿越跑道數 (e) 提供充裕的彎道空間及彎道加寬設計 (f) 提供塔台可見性, 避免交通瓶頸 ( 二十二 ) 滑行道幾何 : 駕駛艙應跟隨滑行道中心線而行, 輪淨距為輪外緣距滑行道邊線之距離 ICAO 以 Code Number II 定義滑行道坡度及視距, 其最大縱坡度率為每 30 m 不超過 1 %, 意謂所有點的半徑需大於 3000m 其坡度取樣為任二點高程差/ 水平距離 ( 二十三 ) 滑行道地帶 Taxiway Strip: 當翼展寬大於滑行道寬時, 需定義滑行道地帶 Visual Aids 需低於引擎高度 定義 graded area 可 22

23 為非舖面但可承重而不下沉之結構組成 其中 Upward slope of grade area 為以相鄰之滑行道坡度為參考線非為水平參考線 ( 二十四 ) 滑行道安全間距 Separation Distance: 注意 Annex 14 定義之 Taxiway / Runway;Taxiways;Taxiway/Object, Taxi lane/object 之間之安全間距 ( 二十五 ) 滑行道彎道 :ICAO Annex14 提供最大滑行速度和滑行道半徑對照表 ( 二十六 ) 滑行道交界 : 三種方式解決滑行道交界輪距淨空 (1) 加寬 : 將彎道內側加寬, (2) 位移 : 位移其滑行道中心線, (3) 兩者結合雖然 (2) 及 (3) 法較為經濟但並不適用夜間低能見度情況 Fillet 加寬設計說明見諸 ICAO Aerodrome Design Manual-Part 2; AC 150/ 加寬設計模擬可用 Software Path Planner 為 Auto Turn 來模擬 ( 二十七 ) 出口滑行道 : 目的增加最大跑道容量, 當尖峰小時交通量小於 25 架次可使用正交出口滑行道, 當使用快速出口滑行道時, 跑道及平行滑行道間距需大於 180m, 而 25 < 出口滑行道中心線與跑道中心線之夾角 (30 )<45 ( 二十八 ) 出口滑行道之位置及數量需考量 : 23

24 (a)distance from threshold to Touchdown (b)touchdown speed (S1) (c)initial exit speed(s2) (d)distance from touch down to exit taxiway= (S1)²-(S2)²/2a ( 二十九 ) 等待機坪 Holding Bays:ICAO 定義為一個區域能使航機等待, 執行有效的旁流移動, 在高交通量的機場, 提供某預期交通量, 為調校導航系統, 為目的, 並考量航機使用量 機型 進入及離開之方式及翼尖淨距 位置需放置於敏感區外避免干擾 ( 三十 ) 機坪 Apron: 機坪型式有 terminal apron cargo apron remote parking apron service and hanger apron, 停機型式有 nose-in nose-out angled nose-in angled nose-out parallel, 機坪設計需考慮翼尖淨距, 航機尾流等 ( 三十一 ) 服務區設備 : 可能有 hydrant fuelling point;ground rods;electric power outlet ; preconditioned air supply ; pneumatic air supply;potable water supply;pax boarding bridges. ( 三十二 ) 航機轉彎半徑計算 : 24

25 3.2 大地工程 ( 一 ) 土壤材質 : 可區分為 Coarse-grained(sand, gravel, cobbles, boulders) 及 Fine-grained(silt,clay, colloid) ( 二 ) 級配 : 各國訂定不同區分之分類土壤, 較佳等級 (well grade soil) 土壤, 其 gradation curve 較平彎向上, 反之較差等級 (pool well grade soil) 土壤, 其 gradation curve 較陡峭 ( 三 ) 土壤顆粒 : 分為 round, sub round, angular, sub angular ( 四 ) 土壤滲透性 Permeability of Soil: V = discharge velocity = K*I = permeability coefficient *hydraulic gradient = K*h/l Hydraulic head distance ( 五 ) 土壤特性 : 相位圖及其計算 25

26 ( 六 ) 液態填充 Hydraulic fill: 1. Water-solid = 6:1 2. Transport 3. Discharge site selection 4. Raising the Ground level 5. Consider consolidation ( 七 ) 場地準備 Site Preparation: Land Reclamation two ways: dumping & hydraulic fill Land Clear: Vegetative Growth;Job specification; Soil Condition or Bearing Capacity;Topography;Rainfall & Climate ( 八 ) 級配需求 : 26

27 1. Earthwork Constraints-cost 2. Drainage requirement and existing facilities 3. Operational requirement 4. Navi -Aide requirement ( 九 )Atterberg limits: 以水含量來描述 fine grained soil 分為三種液限 (liquid limit); 塑限 (plastic limit); 縮限 (Shrinkage limit) 塑性指數 IP=LL-PL; 收縮指數 IS=PL-SL; 液性指數 Il=(Wn-PL)/LL =(Wn-PL)/(LL-PL) Liquidity Index LI 0 < LI < 1 LI<0 LI>1 Soil plastic solid Liquid ( 十 ) 夯實 : 夯實目的在於使土壤有較低可壓縮性 增加剪力強度 減少滲透 性 增加土壤之長期強度, 故夯實過後之土壤可降低分子間距 降低空 氣大小 降低空氣體積, 其具四項變因 Dry Density;Water Content; Compact Effort;Soil Type 考慮經濟因素下, 使用 Mechanical, Chemical, Thermal, Electrical 穩定法穩定土質, 其中 Mechanical Stabilization 及 densification 為夯實 三種夯實試驗 (1)Standard Compaction(Proctor)test(2)Modified AASHTO Compaction test(3)vibrating Hammer test 低含水量之土壤很難夯實, 當含水量 加大水佔據空氣空間易求得最大乾密度, 但當含水量太多時減低乾密度 27

28 反而不易夯實 Degree of compaction = dry density = ρd = Ms/Vt = ρbulk / 1+W ρ d 在 A 點意謂可籍增加或減少土中含水量使逹到最大夯實度及最大乾密度 ( 最佳 ) A = maxi compaction degree = maxi dry density Time depend ( 十一 ) 夯實的方式 Compaction ways: 1.Static:roller, pneumatic-tired rollers, sheet-foot roller 2. Impact :10~20m dept. 3. Vibratory:volume as low as possible ( 十二 ) 不同土質之震盪效應 Vibratory compact effect to different Group of Soil: Drug granular soil semi cohesive cohesive soil State of motion V V Pressure & shear stress V V Energy V V V ( 十三 ) 有效應力關係 :Total Normal Stress=Effective Stress+Pore water or Neutral Pressure σ =σ + μ water pressure Total normal effective stress pore 應用 ρ= ρg h, 求 σ 及 μ ( 十四 ) 壓密及壓密沉陷 (Consolidation&Consolidation Settlement): 發生 壓縮的原因在於土壤顆粒變形, 壓縮內含之水及空氣, 因而被 28

29 擠壓出來 土粒及氣孔內之水幾乎不可壓縮, 當氣孔內水被擠壓出來, 土粒重新安排其結構, 變得更穩定及緊密, 體積因此減小, 土表沉陷, 該過程發生的快慢決定土壤滲透性, 該土壤重組程度決定於土壤骨材剛性, 如黏土加壓致水分由氣孔擠出的過程為應力應變及時間關係 1.Soil 有 deformation (shape, volume) memory 2.St = Si + Sc + S immediate consolidate secondary settlement settlement compression (σ 為 constant 時 secondary settlement stare) 3. 使用 oedometer 壓縮土壤 : 先評估 soil compression 再計算 soil layer settlement 4. Soil permeability 決定 Settlement occur speed ; rigidity of soil sketch 決定多少 Settlement 量 ( 十五 ) 衡量 consolidation: 使用 vertical strain void ratio/effective consolidation stress Pre consolidation pressure σ ρ:maximum vertical over burned stress load pressure 為 σ v0 Normal consolidateσ v0 = σ ρ OCR = σ ρ/σ v0 = 1 29

30 Over consolidation σ v0 <σ ρ OCR > 1 Under consolidation σ v0 >σ ρ OCR < 1 ( 十六 )Settlement Computation:..... h... Δe e0 1 S = H Δe/1+ e0 (1)Consolidation Theory Cc = compression Index = Δe Logσ2 σ1 Cv = consolidation coefficient = K/mvyw permeability coefficient Tv = Time factor = Cv/H 2 t U%= degree of consolidation = fn(π) σ =σ + μ constant σ μ u=0 water quantity V second day settlement start ( 十七 ) 場地調查 Site Investigation: (1)Exploration for preliminary design At least to a depth of 1.5W of foundation, one borehole to a greater depth than the rest, complete first soil profile and overall ground condition (2)Sampling For some test (oedometer test) to undisturbed soil 30

31 (3) In-Situ Test Field van test Pressure test soft clay shear strength by torque soil & Rock s deformation by probe (4) Penetration Test (i)standard Penetration Test (SPT) 下降 0.3m 之摩擦次數 classify soil strata in all soil type Relative density Loose N 10 Medium 10~30 Dense 30 (ii)ram Sounding Test (DPA and DPB) 僅改變錘重及高度 (iii)cone Penetration Test (CPT) (iv)weight Sounding Test (WST) ( 十八 ) 地物法 :Geophysical Method (i)seismic Method (ii)electric Resistively Method 要有水為媒介,Estimate depth of bedrock, sand & gravel or water bearing strata to estimate the thickness of strata. 31

32 3.3 機場設施電路 ( 一 )CCR(Constant Current Regulators)function 功能 : i. Produce a constant current output ii. 2 & more output current when dimming of the light s are required. Chip for monitor CCR 調節器 ( 二 ) 機場使用串聯電迴路 : 1. 可用較長線路 Longer cable length 2. 一串定亮度 uniform lighting intensity for entire CCR 3. 高壓 For Primary CCR 5KV no. of lights 4. Secondary CCR isolating 防止 burn 32

33 3.4 機場空調及通風系統 1. 目的 : Comfort Indoor Air Quality Fire Safety Smoke Smoke Atrium 60%humidity Particle Organic Microbial Fire Escape free extract smoke 75m/min air Lobby system distribute movement Fresh air Filter Humidity Ventilation Assist Sprinkle ASHARE CO2sensor control 65% Fan Pressurization Fan fireman Fire screen 2. 負載估計 : (1) Solar radiation (2) Heat conduction (3) Heat interior human, facilitate generation (4) Fresh air 3. To outside Condenser Compression Fair Evaporator Cooled air inside warn air 4. 冰凍劑 33

34 冰凍劑 Atmospheric life /Global warming Ozone Deleting HCFC 22 Bad Bad HCFC 1123 Good HFC 134 Good 5. 中央空調系統 Central air condition System 6. 通風井功用 Mechanical Ventilation: 提供新鮮空氣 控制味道及濃 煙及防火功能 3.5 行李處理系統 1.Out bound Baggage Handling System ( 出國 ) (1) 三種 BHS:Automated System;Semi-Automatic System : manually coded; Manual System (2)Sortation System (a) Manual Sortation economic, easy maintains, reliable (b) Automated Sortation System (i) Tilt-tray System 用 tray 將 baggage 導出 (ii) Pusher system 用推出器將 baggage 導出 (iii) Destination Code Vehicle Sortation system 高速昂 貴 (3)Output / Make-up Device:Sortation 後裝箱的出口 34

35 (i) Make-up loop:need more space, few flight together, equal access (ii) Lateral loop:1 lateral 1 flight, walk baggage to container (iii) Slides: more, manpower, 分等裝箱 2.Automatic System Design Consideration (1) Bar Code tag;radio Frequency ID (2) Failure Mode (3) Cost effective 3.Security Equipment i. Detecting explosive ii. False alarm rates iii. Through put iv. Person training 4.Inbound Baggage Handling System (i) flat plate device-simple low cost, friendly (ii)inclined Plate device-fast, effective, complex & space, injury 3.6 空橋設計 : 乘客空橋設備 : 包含 Rotuna, Tunnel, undercarriage, and CAB 之結構 35

36 4 種 PLB 型態 :Pedestal Type-90 懸臂 ;Apron Drive Type- 可多向調整, A/C 也可多方式停放 ;Radial Drive Type- 不可前後移動, 因為無套筒可 swiveling;overwing Type- 可跨越機翼空橋基本設計考量 : (1) 航機停止位置 (i) Proximity to building (ii) Tail limit (iii) separation to other gates (iv) fuel outlet (2) 空橋斜度 < 10%, adjust level of rotunda (3) 可操作之弧度 Operational Range of the Bridge sufficient operational range 空橋安全考量 :Safety Consideration (1) Fail Safe Design : Fail then turn to safety Mode (2) Auto leveler : 機門防撞 (3) Limit Switches : 和他橋踫撞 2 Set switch, Protect Apron (4) Fire Protection : NFPA 36

37 3.7 航機停泊引導系統 ADGS(Aircraft Docking Guidance System) 調整航機走向利用雷射光數測量航機 azimuth, closing rate, stopping sign 於顯示板中提供與駕駛員參考, 可提高機坪效率 降低勞工 提供到離資 訊予飛航資訊顯示系統 降低機坪間距等優點 3.8 機場排水設計 一 Estimate of Surface Runoff ( 一 ) Coefficient of Run off, C run off quantity C = Total Precipitation 查表 weighted runoff coefficient C = C1A1 + C2A2 + +CnAn A1 + A2 + + An ( 二 ) Time of Concentration Tc Tc = Ts + Td Time of Time of surface flow Time of flow with in concentration overland flow the drainage system inlet time S Distance, C 查表 V= t 粗估假設 ( 三 ) Rainfall Intensity I 5 年洪水量 + 下雨時數 查表 ( 四 ) Run off rate Rational Method Q = run off = m3/s = C*I*A/360 (mm/hr)(hectares ha) 1ha = 10,000 m 2 二 Hydraulic Design of Drain ( 一 ) Manning Formula Q = A * R 2/3 * S 1/2 / n discharge flow area A bed slop drain material capacity (W+2*0.85h) roughness hydraulic radius 因為 A=R*P coefficient ( 二 ) V = Q / A = average velocity 37

38 ( 三 ) Froude Number need<1 Fr = V / gy 1/2 Fr<1 sub critical condition 三 Design Consideration ( 一 ) 1 < V < 3 m/sec steady flow 1.5m/sec excessive scouring for earth stream hydraulic jump ( 二 ) subcritical Condition Fr < 1 avoid unstable & wary in critical condition ( 三 ) Freeboard : 15% ( 四 ) Transition : 15W ( 五 ) Bend In drain : R > 3W ( 六 ) Drainage Sump : > 1.5W ( 七 ) Open Drains in critical Area not allowed 3.9 瀝青混凝土之理論及實務 一 瀝青種類 Type of Asphalt Hot mix : Asphalt cement Cold mix : Cutback asphalt ; asphalt emulsion 二 瀝青膠泥組成 Component of Asphalt Cement asphaltenes, resins, oil 三 瀝青混凝土分級系統 AC Asphalt Grading system hard soft 1. Penetration 25 40, 50, 200, Viscosity 60 AC40, AC10, AC Viscosity aging 60 AR16000, AR Performance PG < perform < 58 四 Cutback Asphalt : hazard from fire & toxicity 38

39 for curing reduce viscosity by plus solvent Rapid curing (Ac + gasoline) ; Medium curing (AC + Kerosene); Slow curing (AC + low volatile oils) Workability, curing time, viscosity after curing 五 Emulsified Asphalt : asphalt particle in water with emulsion agent cationic : asphalt particle (+) (good for aggregate) anionic : asphalt particle (-) 可溶於水六 Aging 產生是因為高溫使 Asphalt cement 內含的 Oil 揮發氧化或因暴露於外界環境中 七 瀝青物理特性 :Asphalt Physical Properties 1. Each asphalt exhibits a different temperature susceptibility Viscosity B aging A aging B A T If A,B, has same viscosity grade may different in Aging & Penetration Grades 是因為 Temperature susceptibility. 39

40 2. Durability : moisture damage ; age hardening 3. Adhesion : immersion test ; adhere to aggregate surface 4. Cohesion : ductility ; retain its shape 八 瀝青品質測試 :Super pave Advantage 1. Direct related to field performance 2. Wider temperature Range 3.Wider Aging condition Range 4.Low temperature cracking & fatigue cracking test 九 骨材 : 提供 pavement 主要 load bearing 的能力 ( 一 ) 種類 : sedimentary, igneous, metamorphic ( 二 ) 來源 : nature, processed, synthetic sand crushed rock blast furnace gravel slag ( 三 ) 乾淨度 不含 clay 較 clean ( 四 ) 骨材特性及評估 (i) Size: In Hot mix asphalt 需要 well graded aggregate Coarse Fine mm 40

41 Mineral filler Dust mm mm Aggregate gradation Pd = ( d / D ) n * 100% 通過 d sieve 的 % 通過 d sieve 可通過 100% 之孔徑 d 之孔徑.5<n<0.6 well grade n<0.5 densely graded n>0.6 open graded (ii.) Aggregate specific gravity:bulk s.g.;apparent s.g.; effective s.g. (iii.) Clean line (iv.) Tough ness (v.) Particle shape (vi.) Absorption 可吸收 100 水即可吸收 50 的 asphalt (vii.) Moisture susceptibility 剝落 damage 恐水性骨材 limestone desired 親水性骨材 granite (viii.) Texture rought texture skid ; affinity rough ( 五 ) Super pave 要求骨材須 41

42 1.gradation limited 2.particle shape angular in both coarse & fine aggregate 3.amount of thin or elongate in coarse aggregate 4.clay content in fine aggregate 十一 瀝青混凝土的要求考量 : (1.) 穩定性 : 承受高度荷重變形能力高穩定性意謂 angular aggregate, rough texture aggregate, dense gradation then compaction, sufficient binder (2.) 持久性 : 環境使 AC 分離, 扺抗此分離的能力高持久性須要 dense gradation aggregate, moisture resistant aggregate, compaction, thicker asphalt cement (3.) Flexibility : 好的 Flexibility 要求 open graded mix,higher asphalt content (4.) Fatigue Resistance : bend repeat without cracking, 須 thick, well compacted aggregate, low air void (5.) Skid resistance : 須 small and hard aggregate, sufficient air void, open-grade aggregate, polymer-modified binder for good drainage (6.) Impermeability : 須 higher binder content, low air voids, dense-well graded mix 42

43 (7.) Workability : 較高 Temperature compaction, less coarse aggregate 十二 製造瀝青混凝土 :Manufacture Asphalt Concrete (1.) Batch plant USA use 30% 10sec dry mix; 25sec wet mix;mix in 163 (2.) Continuous mix plant (3.) Drum mix plant 70% production;rotating drum Both dry aggregate & mix in drum Gas in 1370,Gas out 柔性舖面設計 一 航機路徑機率 (1.) Aircraft Path deviation from Center Line Landing Runway > Take off runway > Taxiway (2.) Maximum Repetition of Load (Max damage) Greatest damage occurs for channelzed condition(taxiway) Taxiway Center of main Gear Runway Center line of Runway 因為 σ deviation (3.) 二種計算法 wander effect (i) Portland Cement Association (PCA) Method Load Repetition Factor 43

44 (ii) FAA Method Convert traffic to coverage Coverage : number of Max stress application occurring within the pavement due to applied traffic One coverage : Each point in traffic lane pavement has experienced a maximum stress Pass-To-Coverage Ratio 表可查 = No. of Departure / Coverage 小飛機 coverage 小 ; 大飛機 coverage 大 (4.) Highly Channelized traffic on Taxiway, Runway End, Turn off area 二 Soil 分類 FAA Method 先分 Partical Gradation (Size), 再分 Plasticity constant 三 Flexible Pavement Component Bituminous Surface Base Subbase No skid way Impermeable Provide smooth Resist shearing stress Distribute load pressure Resist pressure (consolidation) Resist volume change CBR 80 CBR 20 四 Equivalency Factor 44

45 目的在於將 Stabilized course 轉成 Granular course Layer thickness, stabilizing agent type, quality, and location of stabilized Layer. Minimize Bituminous Surface 10cm critical; 3in no critical 五 Overrun area pavement 1/2 runway pavement thickness;more stone chip aggregate 六 Aircraft Load 95 % weight on Main Gear Landing gear type & Geometry(Single, dual, dual tandem, wide body) Tire pressure :75 200psi 七 Development of Flexible Pavement design curve CBR method Develop for single wheel loading (convert all type to single wheel) Adjust by load repetition factor (base on annual departure over 20 years) Designed A/C: greatest thickness (Type & annual departure) 八 Design Equivalent Annual Departure for design aircraft Convert different type A/C: 1.Annual departure to designed A/C; 45

46 2.Make wheel load(mtow*0.95)/n Each Type annual departure by designed A/C make by Log R1 = W2/ W1 Summation Each type to be Equivalent Annual Departure for design A/C Wide body designed to be ;dual Tandem 九 求出 Flexible Pavement Design Thickness 查表並使用 Equivalent Annual Departure for design A/C;MTOW;CBR for subbase & subgrad 求得 Total pavement thickness ; 考慮另一表,minimum base course thickness equipment 十 Overlay 原則 不可使用 sandwich 因為 separation granular layer 不利排水 Overlay 最少瀝青厚度為 75mm 可將 Surfacing 視為 Base course Base course 視為 Subbase course equivalency Factor 十一 ACN-PCN Method ACN:Aircraft classification Number:A Number expressing the relative effect of an A/C on a pavement for a specified standard subgrad strength 46

47 PCN:Pavement Classification Number:A number expressing the bearing strength of a pavement for unrestricted operations. PCN bearing strength /pavement type(r,f) /sub grade category(a,b,c,d,e) / Tire pressure(w,x,y,z)/ evaluation(t,u) 3.11 柔性舖面施工 各層特性 : 一 Subgrade:Compact to dry density 95%;Stabilized with cement 二 Transition Layer:To prevent migration of fines into sub-base 三 Sub-Base:Better quality on top of sub-base layers (well graded granular;more permeable & no-plastic material)plasticity Index < 6 四 Base:Material need tough;pi<6% 小 plastic;dense gradation; High strength 五 Wearing Course:High stability;high skid resistance;open-graded mix 20%;Air void for wet weather and prove good skid res. 舖築機 :Asphalt Paver ( 一 ) Tractor unit: 組成 :push roller;hopper;auger;conveyor 控制 :Material feed system control by conveyor speed;screw 47

48 speed;flow gate opening;control amount of material ( 二 )Screen Unit: AOA control by low point & thickness control cranks AOA material thickness ( 三 )Automatic Screen Control: 上高地時 Pull point AOA constant 下坡時 Pull point AOA constant 瀝青混凝土滾壓 :Asphalt concrete Rolling (compaction) ( 一 ) 三種滾壓機 Steel wheel;pneumatic Tire Static Roller;Vibrating steel wheel roller (1)Steel wheel:three-wheel steel Roller;Tandem Roller KN/m 2 (2)Pneumatic Tire Static Roller: KN/m2 (3)Vibrating steel wheel roller:frequency vibration ( 二 ) 控制夯實之變數 :Control compacting variables Magnitude of load:static weight, dynamic force, Total force Frequency of Vibration: Vpm Roller speed: effects on density, 2.5 mph Number of Roller Passes: density, uniformly Rolling Zone>125 48

49 Roller path: uniform ( 三 ) 柔性舖面之夯實 : Sub grade and embankment fill by all type of roller for granular aggregate cohesive soil by pneumatic tired Base & Subbase:Heavy vibrating drum or steel wheel roller for granular Asphalt Surface:3 stay of rolling;thin mat not to use vibratory roller (1)breakdown rolling: T>125 using steel wheel roller (2)Intermediate rolling : T>80 using pneumatic or vibrating roller (3)finish rolling : T>65 using steel tandem roller 3.12 剛性舖面設計 ( 一 ) 剛性舖面組成 :Component:PCC Slab;Subbase;Subgrade Sub base: No need if no frost hazard;its functions are for mud pumping, frost action, deformation, supporting Subgrade:Need to be compacted ( 二 ) 影響剛性舖面設計因素 : (1) Aircraft traffic Volume depend Aircraft departure traffic; (2) Aircraft load; 49

50 (3)Strength of Subgrade-Subbase or both (i) subgrade compact 造成 dry density 上升 ; 降低 lower moisture content; 提高強度 K=modulus of subgrade reaction=rate of increase in the compressive strength of subgrade=<500 pci (136 MN/m3)FAA recommend (ii) subbase:well grade crushed aggregate Standard thick= 4 in but now check for > kg load impermeable 混凝土橈度強度 :Concrete Flexible Strength FAA 規範 flexural test 於 7,14,28,90 天取樣測試 Module of rupture(flexural strength, psi)= Elastic Module 8-10 constant Compressive strength of concrete, psi (MR =K fc) 剛性舖面應力 :Wheel load; temperature moisture differential friction 及 Stress due to friction (1)Wheel load:from FAA interior loading;edge loading (3) Temperature & moisture differential:temperature differential 造成 Curling 及 Warping Stress;Moisture 造成的 bend 方向和 Temperature 相反可互相抵銷 50

51 In summer In winter Temperature differential Moisture (4) Stress due to friction Slab & Subgrade produce due to temperature differential 美國航空總署剛性舖面設計方法 :FAA Method of Rigid Pavement Design Westergrad s analysis of edge loaded slab of jointed edge rigid pavement 先求出 Aircraft Annual Departure Volume, N 再將 Concrete Flexural Strength, Subgrade Module, Aircraft Gross weight W; 查 FAA 表 ;rigid pavement thickness required Pavement Joints 功能及分類 : 功能 : 允許熱脹冷縮不至於分離 ; 釋放因 Temperature & moisture content 產生 slab 及 foundation 間的摩擦力 ;Construction 所需 分類 :Construction Joints;Expansion Joints;Construction Joints Construction Joints: (i) Longitudinal Construction Joints:At edge of each construction lane;keyed & download to provide load transfer;tie bar hold slabs 51

52 together (ii) Transverse Construction Joins:butt type Joint with dowel 使用 在暫時停工, 在預劃縮縫位置附近 ;keyed joint with tie bar 使用在預 劃位置間隔 Middle Third 處 Expansion Joints:Provide space for expansion;not used in rigid airport pavement; 二不同材料相接時才需要 Expansion Joints; pavements thickness < 10 in 時及 placed during cold weather 時需要 Contraction Joints:Predetermined location;relieve tensile stress; Controlling cracking;sawed or formed groove type Joints Chart: Expansion Joints Construction Longitudinal Construction Transverse Contraction Longitudinal Contraction Transverse Key X V v X X Dowel V v V X V Tie bar x v V v X Joints Spacing: 當 without stabilized subbase 時 width B/t(in) <24, length L <1.25 B; 當 stabilized subbase, 所以 higher warping and curling stress; 4 6=Joints space/radius of relative stiffness Jointing Steel: (1) Tie bar: 用在 longitudinal contraction joints & construction 52

53 joints; 不可承受力量只負責接合 (2) Dowels: 允許 transfer load across joint;prevent relative vertical displacement of adjacent slab end Reinforced Rigid Pavement: 可解決角型易破碎帶的問題 Log R=log R 2 w2/w 剛性舖面施工 2 種施工法 :Slip form Method;Slide-form Method 施工材料 : (1) Aggregate: course & fine mix Not more 8% for elongate flat size < 5cm (2) Cement: Ordinary Portland Cement; Rapid Harden Portland Cement; Portland Blast Furnace Cement; Asphalt Resisting Portland Cement (3) Water: Clean (4) Admixture: 5 type chemical admixture Air Entraining Admixture function 注意其 Workability;Reduce bleeding segregation; Improve frost resistance (5) Covering material for curing of concrete Whit Burlap polyethylene sheeting 53

54 Water proof paper / white polyethylene sheeting Liquid Membrane Forming Compound (6) Joint Filler (7) Joint Sealed / Sealant (8) Joint Insert (9) Steel Reinforcement (i) Steel wire fabric (welded fabric) reinforcement (ii) Reinforcing Bars (10) Tie Bar & dowel Bar 混凝土混合限制 : (1) Minimum Flexural strength of Concrete 600psi (2) Minimum cement content 500 1bs/cu (3) Maximum allowable water cement Ratio 0.5 (4) Workability :Low slump rate (1-2 cm )good to slip form work (5) Cementations Material:Fly crash < 25% ; Ground slag < 30% (6) Air entrainment in concrete mix 裝備 :Equipment (1)Batch Plant: Bins & Hopper;Scales (2)Mixer:Central plant Mixer;Truck Mixer and Truck Agitator; 54

55 Non-agitator Truck (3)Finishing Equipment: (i)finishing Machine:Oscillating-type transverse;screeds (ii)vibration: side-form:surface pan type;internal type;hand vibration slip- form:internal vibration;vibrating screed (iii)paver:placing, consolidating, finishing the concrete pavement 開始準備 subgrade & subbase:accurately trimmed;proper elevation & profile;subgrade & subbase need moister with water without saturate; for slip form, widen SB & SG, to support paver. 處理計算及群組材料 : Aggregate different stockpiled:drainage, dry; secure, no mix Cement:weight 1 % accuracy Water:Volume & weight 1 % accuracy Admixture:3% accuracy 混合混凝土 :Mixing Time : second;mix to place: 30 minute non agitating;90 minute agitating; Mix limitation : heat aggregate or water in cold water ; >10 55

56 place cold aggregate or water in hot water;< 35 in place. 放置混凝土 Placing concrete:placing and spreading;strike-off placement of Reinforcement. 放置 Joints; 完成 Consolidation and Finishing; 紋理 Texturing; 養護 Curing Slip form Paving 的優缺點 : 優點 : 不需加框省材料人力及時間 ;placing, spreading, consolidating, finishing 在同一步驟完成不需其他機關 ; 缺點 : 後置強化鋼可造成新型成鋪面傷害 ; 加保護防雨水侵蝕 ; 工作困難 56

57 4. 建議 新加坡民航學院不僅在專業師資之提供 課程安排, 具有完整規劃, 對於學員學習成效利用多種形式之考試, 了解其吸收能力, 相對於其他訓練機構實謂嚴謹, 所有學員勢必獲益良多, 本次課程僅完成機場施工部份, 該課程之第三階段尚有機場設施及機場工程維護部份尚未完成, 建議若有機會仍應參與完成該項訓練, 或遴聘相關教師至本國授課 57

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