Title Politics in Okinawa since the Rever US to Japan in 1972 Author(s) 江上, 能義 Citation 琉大法学 (53): Issue Date URL

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1 Title Politics in Okinawa since the Rever US to Japan in 1972 Author(s) 江上, 能義 Citation 琉大法学 (53): Issue Date URL Rights

2 琉大法学第 53 号 (1994) 168 PoliticsinOkinawasincetheReversion ofsovereigntyfromtheustojapaninl972 TakayoshiEgami ProfessorofPoliticalScience UniversityoftheRyukyus TvieJocatio mdtノiesノtorzノijstoがq/ohimluq TheOkinawalslands(theRyukyulslands)formanarchipelagoofl25islandsstretchingsouthwesterlyfromKyushutoTaiwan Theislandsare generallysubdividedintotheokinawa,miyako]yaeyama,andsenkaku groups,thetotallandareaoftheprefectureisapproximately2,245 squarekilometers(866squaremiles).thepopulationofokinawa Prefectureisaboutl,250,000. ThelargestislandisOkinawa(453squaremiles),thesiteoftheUnited StatesmilitarybasesUScontroloftheOkinawalslandsfollowedthe BattleofOkinawa(ApriltoJunel945).Themainisland,Okinawa,isby farthelargestbothintermsofsizeandpopulation,andistheprefecture,seconomic,administrative,andculturalcenter Therelativelyconstantwarmtemperaturesandabundantrainfallofthe subtropicalzonekeeptheislandsgreenthroughouttheyear Typhoons withmonsoonrainsstrikeregularlyinlatesummerandearlyfallthe OkinawanlanguageisamajordialectofJapaneseAlthoughthedialect iscloselyrelatedtojapanese,itisnotintelligibletospeakersofstandard JapaneseorofanydialectsinthemainislandsofJapan KowthatstandardJapanesehasspreadthroughouttheislandsimanyyoungmenand womeninokinawadonotspeakthedialect OkinawaisalsoJapan'spoor estprefectureinper-capitamcome. OkinawaisoftencalledRyukyu,Ingeneralterms,Ryukyumaybe (1)

3 167 PoliticsmOkinawasincetheReversionofSovereignty fromtheustojapaninl972:takayoshiegami regardedastheancientname,andokinawaasthemodernname ThepeopleofOkinawahavedevelopedoutsidetheframeworkofthe Japanesestateformuchoftheirhistory Bythel2thcentury,many smalllocalrulersknownas anjibr1aji,hademerged,buttheirdomains weregraduallyconsolidatedbyconquest 1,1429,theRyukyusdeveloped intoaunitedkingdom,whoserulerpaidtributetothechineseemperor Inthel5thandl6thcenturies,Ryukyu'sadvantageouslocationenabledthe kingdomtocarryonalucrativeentrep6ttrade SoutheastAsianproducts suchasspiceasappanwood,andturmericwereexchangedforjapanese swords,copper,chineseandkoreansilktextiles,andceramicsatthat time,theryukyukingdomprosperedasatradingstate.1 However,attheendofthel6thcentury,thePortugesecutinto Ryukyu,sSoutheastAsiantrade lnl609,thekingdomwasconqueredbytheshimazufamilyofthe Satsumadomain(nowKagoshimaPrefectureinKyushu)Ⅲwhichexploited itsstrategiclocationandfreedomfromshogunalsupervisiontoprofit fromcommercewithchina AftertheMeijiRestorationinl868,the JapanesegovemmentclaimedformalsovereigntyovertheRyukyusandincorporatedthemasOkinawaPrefectureinl879 Atthesametime,the RyukyuKingdom,whichhadextendedoverfourandahalfcenturies,came toendthiswasnotrecognizedbythechineseuntiltheconclusionof Sino-JapaneseWarinl895OkinawaPrefecturecontinuedinexistence over60yearsfroml879tol945. DuringthebattleofOkinawaattheendofWorldWarll,morethan loo,ooosoldiersoftheus,andjapanwerekilled,andtheislanderslost approximatelyl2qooononcombatantlives Subsequently,theUSArmyoccupiedtheislandsuntiltheirreversiontoJapaninl972. (2)

4 琉大法学第 53 号 (1994) 166 んmaLuaReue 応 do 几 1992,theyearbeforelast,wasananniversaryyearforthepeopleof Okinawa,becausejusttwentyyearshadpassedsincetheOkmawa Reversioninl972Theanniversarywascelebratedsplendidly,andmany eventsandfestivalstookplaceamongthesecelebrationsⅢthegreatest wasthereconstructionceremonyofshuri-castleoftheryukyudynasty era,acastlewhichhadbeendestroyedinthebattleofokinawaduring WorldWarlL Accordingtoapublicopinionpollinthesameyear,nearly90percent ofokinawanrespondentsansweredthatitwasagoodthingthatokinawa returnedtojapan,andonly4percentwerenegativeaboutit Compared withtheresultofannhkopinionpollinl977,fiveyearsafterthereversion,whichshowedthatnearly50percentwerenegativetothereversion, itisclearthatsupporthadgreatlyincreased Accordingtothesameopinionpollinl992,however,85percentof OkinawanrespondentswantedremovalorreductionofUSmilitarybases Inaddition,45percentagreedwiththeopinionthatOkinawahadlostcer- tainofitscharacteristicsoverthepasttwentyyearsamongcharacteristicswhichokinawahadlost,thefirstwas nature",andthesecondwas theokinawandialect',.2 ltwasthesatocabinetwhichbroughtaboutthereversionofokinawa, 1,1965,Mr EisakuSatovisitedOkinawaasaprimeministerforthefirst timeafterthewar,andpromisedtodohisbestforokinawareversion, deliveringanofficialstatementatnahaairportthatthepost-wareraof JapanwouldnotendwithoutOkinawaReversion.2Indeedhestakedhis politicalreputationonitfromthattimeon HeatedcontroversiesragedintheDiet,centeringaroundtheAgreement onokinawareversionbetweenjapanandtheunitedstatesnovember l971,theliberaldemocraticparty(ldp)votedtheagreementthroughthe (3)

5 165 PoliticsmOkinawasincetheReversionofSovereignty fromtheustojapaninl972:takayoshiegami LowerHouse,intbefaceofanoppositionpartyboycott Ontheanniversaryday,l5Mayl972,theOkinawanpeopleexpressed mixedfeelings,becauseasaresultoftheagreement,hugeusmilitary basesstillcontinuedtoexistontheokinawaislands Thissternfactre ducedbyhalftheirpleasureatreturningtojapan Commemorationfesti valsandprotestmeetingswereheldsimultaneouslyonthisdayin Okinawa ForPrimeMinisterSato,whohadstayedinpowerforalmosteight yearsⅡthedaywasthelastpageofhiscareer TheJapanesegovernment issuedanofficialstatement,that weshoulddoourbestinorderto maketheokinawaislandspeaceful,whereeconomicandculturalexchanges willprosperbetweentheislandsandtheasiancontinent,southeastasia andpacificcountriesthisisjustourwaytocommemoratethegreat numberofpeoplewhowerekilledinthebattleofokinawa,andtocele brateokinawareturningtoourcountry".4 Atthattime,however,contrarytothecontentofthisstatementUmany fighterplanesandtankerplanescontinuallytookofffromusmilitary basesinokinawa,becausetheusarmyhadjustmovedtotheoffensivein thevietnamwaron9mayl972,justbeforetheanniversary Thesloganofprotestmarches, weshouldrecreateapeacefulokinawa withoutusmilitarybasesunderjapanesepacifistconstitution",sounded invaininthesecircumstances ChiefExecutiveChobyoYaraexpressedthedeepsatisfactionofhiscoL stituents,buthealsonotedthattheirfulldesirehadyettobefulfilled; thatwouldhavetowaituntilbothjapanandtheunitedstateshad agreedthatthepresenceofamericanforcesonokinawawasnolonger necessaryforpeaceinasia.5 USmiJjtQm ノ 6qsesQndt/iereuersjo 几刀 zoueme 几 tmt ノ iepost 山 arobmqu ノ a AfterthedisastrousBattleofOkinawa,theOkinawaislandswere (4)

6 琉大法学第 53 号 (1994) 164 armedfortress separatedfromjapan,andcontrolledbytheusmilitaryfor27years TheOkinawaAssemblyandajudicialsystemwereestablishedinl946 TheOkinawaGunto(Archipelago)GovernmentandtheGovernmentofthe Ryukyulslandswereestablishedinl950andl953respectively,buttheir competenceandfunctionwererestrictedundertheusmilitary Inprac tice,theciviladministratorcouldnoteffectchangescontrarytothewill ofthecommandinggeneraltheunitedstatesarmydecidedtoreplace theisland'stemporaryfacilitieswithpermanentinstallations,thereby manifestinganintentionto holdontookinawa,foralongtimetocome Thisdecisionwaspromptedlargelybytheincreasingdivisionoftheworld intotwohostilecampsandthevictoryofthechinesecommunistsinl949 AmericanpolicybegantobepredictedonanindefinitecontroloftheislandThispolicywasstrengthenedaftertheoutbreakofKoreanWarin Junel950forOkinawaroseinstrategicimportance,especiallyasan airbase.6afterthattimatheusmilitarystartedconstructinghuge militarybasesinordertorealisetheplanofconvertingokinawaintoan ThiscausedthepeopleofOkinawamuchtroubleTheUSmilitarydemandedmoreandmoreagriculturallandtoexpandairfields,roadsand otherbasefacilities Byl955theUSforcesoccupiedabout4qOOOacres,or 12.7percentofthetotallandarea,andabout4qOOOlandownersweredispossessedAnestimated44percentoftheareaincludedinthomilitary reservationwasfarmland;thisisequivalenttol7percentofthetotal Okinawanfarmarea,whichwasestimatedtoconsistof6L873acresanaverageofonlyO85ofanacreperfarmfamily Bytheverynatureofitseconomyandduetothelackofnaturalresources,OkinawawaspredominantlyagriculturaLTomostofthe Okinawans,landwasthesolemeansoflivelihoodTheirattacbmentto landwasverystrong,anditwasdifficultforadispossessedfarmertoobtainsubstitutelandorchangehisoccupationplnl952,uscar(the (5)

7 163 PoliticsmOkinawasincetheReversionofSovereignty fromtheustojapaninl972:takayoshiegami UnitedStatesCivilAdministrationoftheRyukyulslands)wasauthorised toacquirethelandofokinawanfarmersthroughleasecontracts, However,theleasetermsandrentalpaymentswereopposedbythevast majorityofthelandowners Insteadofnegotiatingtheissue,USCARemployedarmedtroopstoremoveoccupantsfromtheirlandsandusedbulldozerstorazehomesandpreparethelandsforconstructingmilitary facilities,farmersputupadeterminedstand,buttheywerenomatchfor themilitary Thosewhoresistedwerearrested Froml954tol958,the militarylandproblembecamethemostcontroversialissuebetween AmericanauthoritiesandOkinawans.Theclimaxwastheall-out `islandwidestruggle,againstthepricereportinl956,andthisproblem wasnotresolveduntillateinl958 Sincethisstruggle,theproblemofUSmilitarybasehasbeenthefirst itemontheagendainokinawanpoliticslnaddition,thesuppressionof fundamentalhumanrightsandvariousdamagessufferedfromtheus militaryoccurredinrapidsuccession,accumulateddissatisfaction,frustrationandangeragainsttheusmilitarygraduallychangedintopopular energyclaimingself-governmentandreturntojapan Lt Gen.,PaulW Caraway,highcommisionerfromFebl961toAu9.1964, ignoredthegovernmentoftheryukyulslands(gri)Ⅲvetoedthebillsof thegrilegistlature(rippoin),andpurgedcandidatesofthecommunist party(jinmin-to),saying Okinawanself-governmentisnothingbuta legend1'.8stronglyresistinghisstubbornattitude,liberalgroupscampaignedtodefendthedailylifeoftheokinawanpeoplefromtheusmilitaryandtoenlargetheirrightofself-government,includingtheelection oftheirchiefexecutivebypopularvote IntheendtheCaraway"Ty- phoon',resultedinstrengtheningandaccelatingthereversionmovementin Okinawa The3rdofMayl965becamethefirstConstitutionalDayforthe Okinawanpeople,becausetheGRILegistraturehaddecidedthedaytobe (6)

8 琉大法学第 53 号 (1994) 162 oneoflegalholidaysalsoinokmawa,needlesstosay,theconstitution ofjapandidnotapplyinokinawa,separatedfromjapan However1the representativessettheconstitutionastheirgoalsinceitprovidesforpacifism,localgovernment,respectforfundamentalhuma rights,andsoon Inotherwords,theseconstitutionalprinciplesweresetasaimsforthem toachievethroughthestruggleagainstusmilitaryrule TheJapanese flag,hinomaru,becamethesymbolofresistancetotheusarmy.11 InNovemberl96atheChiefExecutivewaselectedbypopularvotefor thefirsttimeasaresultofalengthypopularmovementdemandingit Intheelection1Mr OYara,areformistcandidate,defeatedhisconserva tiveliberaldemocraticopponent,mr JunjiNishime,whofavoured Americanretentionofmilitarybases Mr Yarawasaleaderofthe Teacher'sAssociationandastrongadvocateofreversion. Broadlyspeaking,therewerethreeconditionsunderwhichtheOkinawan Reversionmightbeattained ThefirstwaywaspresupposingthatUS militarybaseswouldbetotallyfreefromanyrestrictions,especiallyon nucleararms Thesecondwaywaspresupposing hondonami'0,thatisto say,oncetheislandshadrevertedtojapan,theextensiveamericanbases therewouldfallunderthesamerestrictionsthatwereappliedtothebases US-JapanSecurityTreaty, Thefirstwaywas,atfirst,supportedlargelybytheconservativeparty, theldp,andtheforeignministry(gaimusho).ontheotherhand,the thirdwaywasstronglyadvocatedbythechiefexecutiveyara,whoknew verywelltheokinawanpeople,sexpectations ConsideringthetenseAsian inthemainland,thismeantnuclear-free ThethirdwaywaspresupposingremovalofallUSmilitarybases,accompaniedbydenunciationofthe situationofthosedays,thethirdsetofconditionslookedalmostimpossible However,itmigbtbesaidthatthecontinualandpowerfulcampaign forreversionagainsttheusarmycontributedtothesecon [nuclear-free] (7)

9 161 PoliticsinOkinawasincetheReversionofSovereignty fromtbeustojapaninl972:takayoshiegami reversion,withthefirstsetofconditionsruledoutentirely, JapanesegovernmentexplainedthatbeingabletoquoteClause8ofthe l969japanese-americanjointcommuniqu5--adocumentwhichdidnot compromisejapan,spolicyagainst manufacturing,possessingandintroducingnuclearweapons''--representednotonlyadiplomaticbreakthrough butalsoagreatconcessionfromtheunitedstates However,mostof Okinawanpeopleshowednosympathywiththisargument,becauseClause 8ofthejointcommuniqu5appeareduselesssinceitcontainednoclear promiseofawithdrawa]ofnuclearweapons TheUSbasesinOkinawa wereshroudedinathickveilofsecrecy Inanycase,theagreementwastheproductofgovernmentalnegotiations betweentheu SandJapanAsaresultofthereversionagreement, Okinawawasplacedintheuncertainpositionofbeinga keystone,ofthe Japan-USSecurityTreaty;atreatywhichhasbeendescribedasameans ofguaranteeingthepeaceandsafetyofjapanandthefareast.16butthe contentwasfarlessadvantageousthanthemajorityofokinawanpeople hadexpectedtheybegantowaveredflagsinsteadofhinomaru. Dr MikioHigaanalysedOkinawanpoliticalcultureasfollows HistoricalrecordsshowthatOkinawahasoftenbeenregardedasa9L4Zd pm9uoininternationalpolitics 1,1880,forexample,Japanmadean unsuccessfulattempttoobtainmost-favored-nationtreatmentinchinaby cedingtohertheislandsofmiyakoandyaeyamalnl964,sovietpremier NikitaKhrushchevwasreportedtohavesuggestedtoagroupofJapanese DietmembersvisitingMoscowthattheSovietUnionwouldconsiderthe returnofthesouthernkurileislandstojapaninexchangeforthereturn ofokinawabytheunitedstatestojapanandsoonthereafter, AssistantSecretaryWilliamP Bundyreportedlycommentedthatthissug gestionwasliketradingahorsewitharabbil However,mostrepugnanttoOkinawanswaswhattheyconsidered (8)

10 琉大法学第 53 号 (1994) 160 examplesinwhichtheirislandswereusedasatoolforthegreaterinterestsofjapanproper TomanyOkinawans,forinstance,JapanregainedherindependenceandenjoyedeconomicprosperityattheexpenseofOkinawa Thustheywould notrejectathesisadvancedbygeorgehkerrthatjapan doesnothold Okinawatobeavitalpartofthenation,sbody;itisexpendable,under duress,iftherebytheinterestsofthehomeislandscanbeservedadvantageously."11 Dr MHigasuggestedthattherewerethreephasesofthereversion movement Thefirstphaseuntill964wasnationalisticincharacter Relyingonsuchfactorsasacommonlanguage,asharedhistory,geographicalproximity,andethnicsimilarity,theOkinawansjustifiedtheir desireforreversiontojapan Forabouttwoyearsbeginninginl965the reversionmovementwasinitssecondphaselnthisphase,whichwasobviouslyaproductofvigorouscampaignsforautonomyandagainstmilitarybases,themainobjectivewasthefulfillmentofbasicprinciplesof thejapaneseconstitution,i e Ipopularsovereignty,peace,andfundameL talhumanrights Thesecondphasemaybecalled iideological' 0r CO stitutional'1.asreversionbecamemoreimminentthankstothesato Johnsoncommuniqu5ofNovemberl967,themovemententeredmtothe thirdphasenowtheokinawanleadersfeltthattheyhadtofight againstthejapanesegovernment1ifitwouldpermittheexistingunrestrictedusmilitarybasestoremainintactatthetimeofreversionthe reversionmovementinthisthirdphaseassumedthecharacterofanantidiscriminationmovement TheOkinawanleadersbegantoattacknotonly thetq6ummsapositionofthejapanesegovernmentontheproblemof militarybasesbutalsoallofofitspast,present,andfuturediscriminatoryactsagainsttheokinawans Forexample,duringthel968Chief Executiveelectioncampaign,Mr YaraarguedthatreversiontoJapan shouldbeaturningpointintheprocessofliberationfromaseriesof (9)

11 159 PoliticsmOkinawasincetheReversionofSovereignty fromtheustojapaninl972:takayoshiegami discriminatoryactsagainsttheokinawans Asconcreteexamplesofsuch acts,hecitedalienrule,restrictedautonomy,thestationingofb-52strategicbombers,etc.17 ThusitcanbesaidthattheOkinawanreversionmovementwasdirected notonlyagainstamericanrulebutalsoagainstthejapanesegovernment andpeoplethathaddiscriminatedagainstokinawans Inshort,hugeUS militarybasesinokinawaarestillnowthesymbolofthediscrimination IthinkthattheirfeelingofbeingdiscriminatedbyJapanhasalsocontributedsomuchtoitsseparateidentityandtoitsmsistenceonlocalautonomyinadditiontoitscultural,historical,andgeographicalfactors. Sevennationalrepresentatives(LowerHouse5,UpperHouse2)were electedonl5novemberl970theallocationoftheseatswasreformist3 vs conservative2inthelowerhouse,andreformistlvs conservativel intheupperhouse Thisallocationdidnotchangeuntill992.Thestructureofconfrontationbetweenreformistsandconservativesbecamefirmlyfixed,andthe formerpredominanceoverthelattercontinuedforawhilesincethe reformistgroupstooktheinitiativeinthereversionmovementin OkinawaOntheotherside,thiselectionacceleratedtheOkinawanlocal parties unificationwithnationalparties. Ra/bアwzjsZgouemors'period(June19 羽 ~DecemberI978) ThefirstelectionsoftheOkinawanPrefecturalGovernorandthe PrefecturalAssembly0accompaniedbythereversion,wereheldsimultaneouslyinJunel972Thepoliticaldebatesthroughoutthecampaign,were concentratedonthereversionagreement Asaresult,criticismgthe Agreementbitterly,reformistsdefeatedconservativesinbothoftheelections ThereformistcandidateYarawonanoverwhelmingvictoryoverthe (10)

12 琉大法学第 53 号 (1994) 158 conservativecandidateintheelectionoftheprefecturalgovernor,andthe reformistpoliticalparties,includingtheokinawasocialistmasses Party(OkinawaShakaiTaishu-To),theOkinawaCommunist Party(OkinawaJinmin-To),andtheJapanSocialistParty,obtainedamajorityintheelectionofthePrefecturalAssembly Particularly,the OkinawaShakaiTaishu-To(weusuallycallitShadai-To),alocal Okinawanparty,whichhadbeenthemainforceofreversionmovement, increaseditsseatsfrom7toll Throughtheelectioncampaign,thereformistsputgreatemphasison pacifism(anti-usmilitarybases)andokinawanidentity(localautonomy).ontheotherhand,theconservativesemphasisedrapideconomicdevelopmentdependingonthenationalgovernmentpolicy,intheend,the peopleofokinawasupportedthereformistopinion Itmeanttheycharged theyaraprefecturalgovernmentwiththedutyofretrievingthepeaceful islandswithoutmilitarybases,itmightbesaid,too,thattheresult showedthestrongdissatisfactionoftheokinawanpeoplewithokinawa Reversiononl5MayundertheagreementbetweenJapanandtheUnited States Furthermore,thereformistswoninthemayoralelectionofNaha city,theprefecturalcapital,innovemberl972 *TheEraofYaraasthePrefectualGovernor Atthefirstconferenceoftheprefecturalcouncil,thePrefectural GovernorYaraspokeonhisadministrativepolicies Inthespeechhe stressedtheresolutionofusmilitarybaseproblems,autonomous prefecturalgovemment,andeconomicdevelopmentpolicies,includingsuch bigprojectsastheokinawanationalathleticmeet(okinawakokutai) andtheokinawaoceanicexposition(okinawakaiyohaku). TheprojectscouldnotbesaidtohavebeenverysuccessfuLbecausethey causedasteepriseinlandprices,aspateofcompanybankruptcies anda (11)

13 157 PoliticsmOkinawasincetheReversionofSovereignty fromtheustojapaninl972:takayoshiegami campaignagainstparticipationoftheself-defenseofficialsteaminthe NationalAthleticMeet strongokinawanantipathyagamsttheself DefenceForceswasderivedfromthehorrifyingexperienceintheBattleof Okinawa Inshort,Japanesesoldiersdidnotonlyprotectthem,butalso killedsomeoftheminthebattle,theysaidlntheend,theself-defence ForceswerestationedinOkinawainspiteofthestrongcampaignagainst them OntheotherhandⅢmanymilitaryemployeesweredischarge,and accidentsandtroublesoccurredfrequentlyoverusmilitarybases TheconsevativescriticisedGovernorYaraforpursuingunrealisticpolicies Infact,prefectualfinancesweresolimitedthathispoliciesdepended heavilyonfinancefromthenationalgovernment.theokinawa DevelopmentAgency,establishedbythenationalgovernmentinl972under thejurisdictionoftheprimeminister'soffice,developedaprogramfor economicdevelopmentofokinawaovertenyears Thisprogramaimedat arapidincreaseoftheprefecturalincomebyconstructingreliablemfrastructure However,Thehighestpriorityofeconomicdevelopment,largely dependentonnationalfinance,steadilyunderminedfundamentalpoliciesof reformistprefecturalgovernment,suchaspacifism(hansen-heiwa)andselfgovernment(jishu-kensei). *TheEraofTairaasthePrefecturalGovernor Mr KoichiTairawaselectedasthereformistPrefecturalGovernorin June1976.Mr K TairawasthechairmanoftheShadai-TqthatiS,the OkinawaSocialistMassesParty,andsucceededtoMnYara'sfundamental policies Throughouttheelectoralcampaign,heemphasizedthestrengtheningof localautonomy,criticizingcentralcontrolhetriedtoseekanewsolutionbreakingthedeadlockonusmilitarybases,becausefrequentmilitary maneuversstillcausednaturaldestructionandwhippedupanxietyamong (12)

14 琉大法学第 53 号 (1994) 156 theokinawanpeople Then,hebegantheworkofpreparingaspeciallaw, thegunten-ho TheGunten-Howasanabbreviationfor Gunyochi-Tenyo Tokubetsu-Sochi-Ho (aspeciallawforpromotingtherestorationand conversionoflandsoccupiedbytheusmilitary).theaimofgunten-ho systematicreductionofthemilitarylandsandtheireffectiveutilization Hewas,however,Suddenlystruckdownwithseriousillnessjustashewas abouttonegotiatewiththenationalgovernmentaboutadraftofthe Gunten-Ho pressedbytheoilcrisisandhighunemployment Inordertofindsome wayoutoftheeconomicdifficulty,governortairatriedtorealizeseveral periodinofficeoftwoyearsandfivemonthswastooshorttobringthese planstofulfillment. wasthatthenationalgovernmentshouldhavegeneralresponsibilitiesregardingtheadministrationofconvertedusmilitarylandsltincluded TheOkinawaneconomydidnotturnforthebettereventhenltwasde plans,forexample,holdinganlndustrialfestivalintroductionofamonorailsystem,andthereestablishmentofokmawanculture,however,his Cb'zseruatiuegouemor'spe od(decem6e71978~lvouem6eri 0) FollowingtheGovernorTaira,sresignation,theelectionofthe PrefecturalGovernorwasheldonDecemberl978 Thiselectionwasa turningpointinokinawanpoliticssincethereversion Afterthiselection, theconservativescontinuedtoexertstrongerinfluenceinokinawanpolitics Mr JunjiNishime,aformerconservativeMP,defeatedthereformist candidate,mrt Chibana,overwhelmingly Throughoutthecampaign,Mr. J Nishimeinsistedthatthereformistgovernors,ideologicalpolicieshad causedokinawandepressionandhighunemployment,andinstead1he empbasisedeconomicdevelopmentpolicies,directlyconnectedtothe (13)

15 155 PoliticsinOkirlawasincetheReversionofSovereignty fromtheustojapaninl972:takayoshiegami nationalgovernmentandtokyobigbusiness Asaresult,Okinawanvoterschargedtheconservativepoliticianwith thedutyofsolvingokinawaneconomicproblems,aheadoftheproblems ofusmilitarybases Generallyspeaking,fromthattime,thefundamen talpoliciesoftheokinawanprefecturaladministrationchangedclearly fromanti-war,anti-usmilitarybase,andanti-nationalgovernment,to pro-usmilitarybase,pro-self-defenceforces,andpro-nationalgovernment ThePrefecturalGovernorNishime,immediatelystartedmanybig projectsforregionaldevelopment,suchasthenakagusukuharbordevelopment,theokinawanmotorwayrunningthroughthemainisland,newconstructionoftheprefecturalmainofficebuilding,thekaihonational AthleticMeet,andtheOkinawaPrefecturalCollegefortheFineArts At thesametime,theadministrationstartedpreparatoryworkforthesecond ProgramofOkinawanEconomicDevelopment,cooperatingwiththe OkinawaDevelopmentAgency Ontheotherhand,theNishimeAdministrationtendedtoneglectpolicy againstusmilitarybases ItsattitudewasbitterlycriticisedbythemembersofreformistpartiesⅢwhichstillmaintainedamajorityinthe PrefecturalAssembly,Needlesstosay,GovernorNishimegaveupthenegotiationontheGunten-Ho,becausethenationalgovernmentobviouslydid notlikeit IntheelectionofthePrefecturalAssemblyinJunel98qthe conservativesgainedthemajority1whichfacilitatedtheexecutionofthe policiesofthenishimeadministrationlnthiselectio,theokinawa SocialistMassesParty(Shadai-To),thepivotalpartyofthereformist groups,losttwoseats.afterallokinawanvoterspreferredthe reality(economicimprovement)totheideology(removalofusmilitary base). GovernorNishimestronglypromotedinternationalexchangepolicyby establishinganinternationalexchangedivisionmtheprefecturaloffice andtheokinawalnternationalfoundation Judgingfromtheofficial (14)

16 琉大法学第 53 号 (1994) 154 statementsithenationalgovernmentexpectedokinawatobecomethebase ofinternationalexchangeforsoutheastasiancountries InOctoberl979,followingtheguidelinesofnationalpolicy,theNishime Administrationreleasedtheframeworkforinternationalexchangeprojects, includingthreemainpillars,acenterofinternationalexchangebetween JapanandSoutheastAsia,aninternationaltrainingcenterⅢandan Okinawaconventionhall1aswellasanOkinawaFreeTradeZone.13 Referringtotheproblemofgeneralconsumptiontax,GovernorNishime asserted, Okinawamustbethefirsttofollowthenationalpolicy,because OkinawadependssomuchonfinancefromthenationalgovemmentノHe insistedrepeatedlyon directlinkagewithnationalgovernment', cooperationwithnationalgovernment,,and precedenceofnationalpolicy'.14why didhetakethisview?theansweristhathewantedtopromotetheregionaldevelopmentadministrationvigorouslybyintroducingasmuch moneyaspossiblefromthenationalgovernment. TheallocationoftheDietseatsinOkmawaconstituencydidnotchange ReformistscontinuedtowininthemayoralelectionsofNaha Howevero conservativeswonothermayoralelections,namelyginowan,urasoe, Nago,andItomanFurthermore,intheelectionofthePrefectural Assemblyl984,conservativeswonmoreseatsthaninthepreviouselection TheresultcontributedsomuchtoconsolidatingtheNishime Administration Meanwhile,theOkinawaSocialistMassesParty(Shadai To)continuedtodecline Intheelectionofl986,Mr Nishimewaselected thegovernorforthethirdtime Inspiteoftheoppositionfromreformists,GovernorNishimeintroduced conservativepoliciesoneafteranothersuchashoistingthenationalflag andsingingthenationalanthematpublicschools,aswellascompulsory useofusmilitarylands Besides,heworkedeagerlytoinvitemanymanufacturingcompaniesto (15)

17 153 PoliticsmOkinawasincetheReversionofSovereignty fromtheustojapaninl972:takayoshiegami setuptheirplantsinokinawaforthepurposeofstimulatingthe Okinawaneconomy,butitwasunsuccessfulImainlybecauseofinsufficient water Howaboutmanyprojectsdependentonnationalfinances?Asaresult time Amongthreemainpillarsofhisinternationalexchangepolicy,the internationaltrainingcenter(okinawakokusaicenter),andtheokinawa conventionhall(okinawaconventioncenter)werebuilt,butthecenterof internationalexchangebetweenjapanandsoutheastasiahasnotbeen createdyet TheOkinawaFreeTradeZone,whichwasexpectedasthe ofthisdependence,governornishimecouldnoteffecttheseprojectssatisfactorilybecauseofthereducedbudgetofthenationalgovernmentatthat baseofinternationaltrade,wasestablished1butithasnotworkedsuc CessfuUybecauseofthelimitedlandareaandmanyregulationsofthenationalgovernment.15 Generallyspeaking,however,theOkinawaninfrastructurehasimproved steadily Besides1thenumberoftouristsvisitingOkinawahasrapidlyincreasedBeingfavoredwithabeautifulnaturalenvironmentincluding transparentseawaterandtheuniquefloraandfaunaofthesouthernislands,andwithuniquetraditionsandculture,okinawahasbecomevery famousasaresortzoneandhasbeenattractingmorethanthreemillion touristseveryyear Serviceindustriesincludingthetouristbusinessare takingaleadingroleintheokinawaneconomy Bycontrastitheincome fromusmilitarybaseshasbeendecreasingrapidly Ontheotherhand1protestsandconflictsconcerningthemilitarybases occurredfrequentlyevenundergovernornishime Soilimprovement workscontinuallywashedawaymuchredclaytotheseathroughstreams, damagingmanycoralreefs,andtheconstructionrushofresorthotelsinducedasuddenriseoflandpricesanddestructionofthenaturalenviro ment TheOkinawanpeoplebegantofearthattoomuchdevelopementmight (16)

18 琉大法学第 53 号 (1994) 152 wipeoutmuchofthebeautifulokinawannaturalenvironment Itissaid todaythatmostofthecoralreefssurroundingthemainisland,havedisappeared Abitterdisputebrokeoutconcerningthebuildingsiteofthe newlshigakiairport Theoppositiongroupsinsistedthattheconstruction wouldsurelydestroyveryvaluablecoralreefssurroundinglshigakiisland Thesupportgroupinsistedthattheconstructionofanewairportwasindispensabletothedevelopmentoftheisland Thedispute1betweenlocal developmentandprotectionofthenaturalenvironment,extendedevento internationalopinion. Resu 埴 e7zceq/αr 小 mzjstgouer 几 or(jvouem6erl O~) Intheend,theinfluenceoftheconservativesbegantowane,andtheinfluenceofthereformistgroupsgrewstrongeragain Intheelectionofthe PrefecturalAssemblyinl988,reformistsincreasedtheirseats,andinthe mayoralelectionofnaha,thereformistcandidatek Oyadomariwasreelectedbyanoverwehlmingmajority Besides,intheelectionofOkinawa city(thesecondlargestcityinokinawa)Ⅲreformistcandidatesarakawa defeatedtheincumbentconservativemayor TheShadai-To,theonlylocal party1regaineditspivotalpositionamongthereformistgroups,and e cidedpromptlyonprofessormasahideotaattheuniversityofthe Ryukyusasitscandidatefornextprefecturalgovernor'selection Hewas oneofthemostpopularscholarsinokinawa,studyingthebattleof Okinawaandthepacifistmovement1andhimselffoughtinthebattleas astudentsoldier TheelectionofthePrefecturalGovernorwasheldintheturmoilofthe GulfCrisisinNovemberl990 GovernorNishimeoncementionedthathe mightsupporttheu NPeaceCooporationBill,proposedbythenational govemment Thewordsimmediatelyinducedanimateddisputesoncemore aboutusmilitarybasesinokinawaappealingtotheanti-war,pacifist sentimentofthepeopleofokinawa,thereformistcandidateprofota (17)

19 151 PoliticsinOkinawasincetheReversionofSovereignty fromtheustojapaninl972:takayoshiegami defeatedgovernornishimeintheelection Thereformistsregainedthe postfromtheconservativesaftertwelveyears Fromthebeginning,however1GovernorOtaconfrontedmanyproblems inattemptingtofulfillhiscampaignpledges,becausetheconservativesretainedamajorityintheprefecturalassembly,heemphasisedthepromotionoffundamentalpoliciesforbuildingupapeacefulokinawa PrefecturawhichshouldbebasedonthelessonsfromtheBattleof Okinawa,andontheconstitutionalprinciples Bycontrastwiththefor mergovernornishime,hecalledforoverallremovalofusmilitarybases andtookupthegunten-hoagain,whichtheformerreformistgovernor Tairahadpursuedvigorously Heassertedthathewouldtryhardtone gotiatewiththenationalgovernmentinordertoenactsuchalaw OntheotherhandihevisitedtheU.S governmenttwicetopromotea betterunderstandingofokinawanproblemsderivedfromusmilitary basesbesides,heresistedthecompulsoryexpropriationofuncovenanted landsforusmilitarybases However,itlooksverydifficultforbimto breakthroughthehardenedattitudesofbothgovernmentsundertheus JapanSecurityTreaty Recently,GovernorOtasaid, ifthejapan-u SSecurityTreatyisso importantforjapan,whyistheburdentooheavyonlyforokinawa? ShouldnottheburdenbesharedequallywithinJapan?"16Forexample1 stillnow,theusmilitaryoftenpracticesfiringwithlivebulletsandshells overtheprefecturalroad Theroadisclosedintheexercise,butitisvery dangerousforthepeopleofokinawamany,manybulletsandshellsare firedintothemountain,onnadake,whichhasbeenlovedsomuchbythe peoplesinceearlytimes Thesound,howeverodoesnotreachtheearsof thepeopleinmainlandjapan DuringtheBattleofOkinawa,ahugenumberofunexplodedshellswere firedintotheground Afterthebattle,theOkinawaadministrationhas continuedtoremovethem,becausetheyhavethreatenedthedailylifeof (18)

20 琉大法学第 53 号 (1994) 150 thepeople Liveswerelostoftenastheresultofsuddenexplosionson constructionsitesltissaidthatitwilltakefiftymoreyearstodoaway withalloftheunexplodedshells Inspiteofthisdesperatefact, manydmanybulletsandshellsareevennowbeingfiredintotheground GovernorOtainsiststhatOkinawashouldsharesomeofthepeacedividendfromtheendingoftheColdWar Ithinkhiswordsimplythat Okinawahasbeenusedasashieldforthedefenseofthemainland,particularlysincetheBattleofOkinawaoverhalfacenturyago AnotherbigproblemforGovernorOtaistheselectionofaconstruction siteforthenewlshigakiairport Heproposedanewsite,Miyara,asan alternativetokaradake-higashi,whichencounteredbittercriticismduring theperiodofgovemornishime However,itwilltakemuchtimetofind aconsensusamongtheislanders ThethirdbigproblemconcernstheOkinawaneconomy Accordingto thereportoftheokinawadevelopmentcounciltheprefecturalgovernmentandokinawadevelopmentagencydecidedthethirdprogramof OkinawaEconomicDevelopmentl ,mainlybecauseOkinawan prefecturalincomepercapitaisevennowalittlemorethan70percentof thenationalaverage FirstlyⅢthisprogramaimedatnarrowingtheincomegap,andsecondly, itaimedatbuildingupconditionsforself-reliantdevelopment Meanwhile1 GovernorOtawantedtoincorporatehisplantoremoveallUSmilitary basesintotheprogram,butthiswasrejectedbycentralgovernmentbecauseitcontradictedjapan-u.s SecurityTreaty.9 Z1heGuvWUrq 几 dohj 几 Qu ノ q Thesloganofthereversionmovementwastorecreateapeaceful OkinawawithoutmilitarybaseswhichwouldreturntoJapanunderthe pacifistconstitutiontheexpectationoftheokinawanpeoplethatus (19)

21 149 PoliticsmOkinawasincetbeReversionofSovereignty fromtheustojapaninl972:takayoshiegami militarybaseswouldberemovedsomedayonceokinawareturnedto Japan,hasbeenbetrayedfortwentyyearssincereversion 75percentofUSmilitarybasesmJapan,aretobefoundinOkinawa, whichoccupiesonlyo6percentofjapaneselandspace Thispresenceof militarybaseshasputaheavypressureonokinawandailylifeltmay besaidthatthepressurehasservedtomaintainthesevereconfrontation betweenconservativesandreformistsinokinawanpolitics Acoalitionofreformistpoliticalparties,whichhadtakentheinitiative inthereversionmovement1controlledtbeprefectura]governmentforsix yearsafterthereversion,advocatingtheremovalofusmilitarybases However,amongtheseparties,theShadai-To,thepivotallocalparty,fell developmentpolicies Sincethereversion,Okinawanpeoplehaveexpectedthesamelevelof livelihoodasthemainlanders( hondonami").infact,theokinawan economywasfarinferiortothejapaneseeconomybeforethereversion lnl971,forexample,theokinawanincomepercapitawaslessthan55per centofthenationalincomepercapita Inordertonarrowthegap,the Okinawanprefecturaladministrationsandthenationalgovernmenthave hadmanyprojectsforboostingtheokinawaneconomy Especially,coL intodecline AfterthePrefecturalGovernor'selectioninl978,conservativescontrolledthePrefecturalGovernmentandgaveprioritytoeconomic servativegovernornishimepromotedvariousdevelopmentprojectsbyleadingfinancialinvestmentsfromthenationalgovernment TheOkinawaDevelopmentAgencyandtheOkinawaDevelopment FinanceCorporationsupportedsuchprojects Hugefinancialinvestments fromthenationalgovernment(approximately35billiondollarsintotal for20yearsafterreversion)improvedtheokinawansocialinfrastructure rapidly Manyresorthotelswereconstructe,andOkinawahasbecomea meccafortouristshowever,theprefecturalincomepercapitaisalittle morethan70percentofthenationalaverageasmentionedbefore I (20)

22 琉大法学第 53 号 (1994) 148 shortotheokinawaneconomynowdependsonfinancialinvestmentsfrom thenationalgovernment,insteadofdependingonusmilitarybasespendings,itisfarfromself-relianteconomy Furthermore,hastyexecutionof manydevelopmentworkscausedthesamedestructionofthenaturalenvironmentashappenedinthemainlandatthehighgrowthperiod Thebaseoftheconservativegovernmentseemedasfirmasarock,in spiteoftheincreasingcriticismofthedestructionofthenaturalenvironmentandsuspicionaboutpoliticalcorruption Twomajorfactors,however,namelytheendoftheColdWarandimprovementofOkinawan livingstandards,begantochangetheattitudeoftheokinawanpeopleto USmilitarybases ItdeservesmoreattentionthatinOkinawa,approxi mately3qooolandownersleasetheirlandsforusmilitarybases Nationallandsoccupyonly34percent.14TheJapanesegovemmenthas continuedpayingrentstotheselandowners But,recentsteeprisesin Okinawanlandpricescausedtheirdissatisfactionwiththelowvaluation oftheirlandsadheredtobythegovernmenl Inadditio,thosewhotrytoimprovethequalityoflifeinOkinawa, havebeguntodemandtheremovingofusmilitarybases certainly, Okinawanlivingstandardshavebeenreasonablysatisfactoryforthepast 20years,includingroads,water-supply,drainage,schools,hospitals,etG Fromnowon,thepeopleofOkinawawouldliketopursuethesamequalityoflifeasthemainlanders,includingsocialandculturalamenitieswithoutfurtheraccompanyingdestructionofthenaturalenvironment But hugeusmilitarybasescuttheirlandstopieces,sothattheyarenowdemandingtheremovalofthemilitarybasesinordertoenhancethequality oftheirlives.i fact,severalmunicipalities(kadena,ginowan,yomitan etc)startedtomaketheirregionalplansbyincorporatingthepartof theircitieswhichlaywithinusmilitarybases Inshort,USmilitary basesnowobstructnewregionalplanninginokinawa Inordertoadvancethisplanning,GovernorOtaadvocatesthe (21)

23 147 PoliticsinOkinawasincetheReversionofSovereignty fromtheustojapaninl972:takayoshiegami enactmentofagunten-ho,whichaimsatsystematicreductionoftheus militarylandsandtheireffectiveutilisation,aslmentionedbefore certainly,theendofthecoldwarraisedagainokinawanexpectations ofremovalofusmilitarybases Theexpectationiseasilyundersta able,ifwelookattheirmanysacrificesunderthebasesoverhalfacentury However,itwassoondiscouragedbytheGulfWar ThefrustrationoftheOkinawanpeoplewasclearlyreflectedintheresultsoftwoelections Firstly,asmentionedbefore,intheelectionl99q Mr Nishime,theformergovernor,whoindicatedhissupportfortheUN PeaceCooperationBill,wasdefeatedbythepresentgovemorOta,apacifistscholanSecondly,intheelectionfortheUpperHousei 1992,Mr SokoShimabukuroⅢtheleaderofShadai-T( ハwhosupportedananti-PKO Bill,defeatedMr,ShinjunOshiro,aconservativeMP Itwassaidthat theresultofthiselectionreflectedtheimpactofthestatementbymr.y Akashi,theheadofUNTAC,onthepeopleofOkinawa Justbeforethe election1mr AkashisaidthathewantedaPKOTrainingCenterand DumptobeconstructedinOkinawa Assoonastheyheardhiswords, mostofokinawanpeoplesaidtoeachother, Nomoremilitarybasesin Okinawa! OkinawahasbeeninasensemovingaroundmainlandJapan1exertinga centripetalforceaswellasacentrifugalforce,justlikeasatellitemovmg aroundaplanet Thecentripetalforceconsistsmainlyofunificationand systematizationintojapaninmanyaspects,aswellaseconomicdevelopmentpolicyfinancedbythenationalgovernment Ontheotherhand,the centrifugalforceconsistsmainlyofemphasisonokinawanhistory,culture,andidentity1andofdemandforself-relianceorindependence Besides,aslmentionedbeforeaboutthereversionmovement,Okinawan pacifismⅡwhichdevelopedaspartofthelongstruggleagainstusmilitary bases,wasonceoneelementofthecentripetalforce,becausealmostall OkinawanpeoplethoughtUSmilitarybasesinOkinawawouldberemoved (22)

24 琉大法学第 53 号 (1994) 146 ifokinawacouldbereturnedtojapanunderthepacifistconstitution However,asyouknowwelLnowthatthepacifismoftheJapaneseconstitutionisassaultedfrominsideandoutside,Okinawanpacifismisturning intoanelementofthecentrifugalforce Okinawanpeoplebegantodis- cussusmilitarybasesandtheiridentityagain. CO zcmsio 几 Firstly,theJapanesegovernmentshouldlistentotheopinionsofthe Okinawanpeoplemorecarefully,andmaketheefforttoremoveorsharply reducetheusmilitarybasesinokinawaltseemsthattheu.s govern mentnowwantstowithdrawitsmanysoldiersfromtheasianregionbecauseoffinancialdifficultiesinthepostcoldwareralnfact,many soldiershavebeenpulledoutfromsouthkorea,thephilippines,andsoon Therefore,nowisthechancefortheJapanesegovernmentandtheUS governmenttotalkaboutokinawanusmilitarybases,mostofthe Okinawanpeoplehopesoindeed Secondly,decentralizationandderegulationarenecessaryforOkinawan self-reliantdevelopment.thepresentglobaltrendtowardaborderless worldhashelpedtorefreshtheirmemoryofthegoldenageoftheryukyu Kmgdom,whenitflourishedasaresultofentrep6ttradelnfact,apart fromtheokinawafreetradezone,yonagunilslandandlshigakilsland recentlystartedtradewithtaiwan.however,thenationalgovernment's tightregulationofthetradesystemanditscustomsduties,obstructrapid progressofinternationaltradefromokinawa ThepeopleofOkinawaexpectednewpoliciesofex-PrimeMinisterMHosokawa1whohadadvocated decentralizationandderegulationforlong Thirdly,fromnowon,Okinawawillbelookingoutforitsownwayin therelationtoneighboringasiancountries,includingtaiwanandchina ThisisnotonlybecauseitissaidthatAsiancountrieswillleadtheworld ipthe21stcentury,butbecauseinthepast,okinawahadaclose (23)

25 145 PoliticsmOkinawasincetheReversionofSovereignty fromtheustojapaninl972:takayoshiegami relationshipwithasiancountriesherself,whilebroadlyspeaking, OkinawancultureisoriginallyamixtureofinfluencesfromJapan,china, Korea,andSoutheastAsiancountriesAsianpeoplearesooftenattracted byokinawa,whichsharestheirculture,food,andexperiencathepeople ofokinawawillpersevereintheireffortsinorderthatokinawacouldbe apeacefulbridgebetweenjapanandasiancountriessomeday. * lwouldliketotb forhisassistance. thankprofjaastockwin(universityofoxford) (24)

26 琉大法学第 53 号 (1994) 144 Notes lkodanshaltd,e>zcyczopediczq/jtzpa 几,VOL6,(Tokyo,1983),p ん i αu ノ Q7Ymes,1January MinoruKusada,SCztoScZjDen27W 几 c/ii,(2797daysofsatocabinet), Gyosei-mondaiKenkyu-sho,VOL1,(Tokyol983),p 膨几 qldatime8,15may 日 'zcycjopedjqqfj 上 ZpcmVo1.6,p 90. 6MikioHiga,PoJitjcsQ7zdp zrtiesj 几 POstu ノ u70hjnqu ノ α,publications CenterofUniversityofBritishColumbia,(Vancouverl963),p8. 71bid.,p 41. 8MasayasuOshiro1S)boma-s ノカ j 0 瓦 ulb(z CO 虎 mqu ノ α,(okinawainthe ShowaEra),Iwanami-shoten,(Tokyol989),p bid,p51. 10MichisadaHirose,OkinawanDisappointmentⅢ,jbpq QuQrterJy, Vol18,N0.4,1971,pp M.Higa, TheOkinawanReversionMovement,,RyLdtziLau ノ Reuieu ノ, No.17,1975,pp GeorgeH Kerr,Okinawa:ZVieHZstom ノ q/α 几 JSkmdPbOpJe,CharlesE TuttleCompany,1958,p10. 12M.Higa, TheOkinawanReversionMovement(Ⅱ)',RyudcziLQu ノ Reuieu),No.18,1976,ppl32-35 l3seekokusaikaihatsucenter,kb ん usqjkbm ノ座 P ね /ect one" ん j ノも <msu'uc ソ Losα-/boho ん u 一 s ノ Lo,(ResearchReportonOkinawanlnternational Pmjects), たれ αu ノロ nmes,9marchl989 l5seetakayoshiegami,`okinawakaramitakokusai-koryuⅢ,(international ExchangeasViewedfromOkinawa)1inKuniShimabukuroand YoshimitsuHigaeds,C ノ iiihjlzqm 几 okb ん皿 scljkb'w,(international ExchangefromaRegionalPerspective),Kenbun-shuppan,(Tokyo,1986). (25)

27 143 PoliticsinOkinawasincetheReversionofSovereign 上 y fromtheustojapaninl972:takayoshiegami 16j`UmfchfDqjJyjVb[Us,l5Decemberl Ryu 句 ushz,29septemberl992 18Aem,Vol 4,N0.45,19911p 7, (26)